Formosan
Basai	ka	and
Kavalan	ka	and (conjunctive)
Siraya	ka	and
WMP
Maguindanao	ka	and
Mori	ka	and
Kulisusu	ka	and
OC
Manam	ʔa	and
Vano	ŋga	and
Buma	ka	and
	ka	and
Paamese	ka	and
	ka	and
Nengone	ka	and
Wayan	ŋga	and
Fijian	ka	conjunction, "and", but used to connect sentences, adjectives, and verbs (between nouns and pronouns kei is used instead)

Note: PAn *ka is less well-supported than PAn *maS ‘conjunction: and’, but given the restricted syntax of both forms in various languages it is possible that PAn and other early Austronesian proto-languages had more than one conjunction that can be translated as ‘and’. Alternatively, since words for ‘and’ are monosyllables in most languages regardless of genetic affiliation, this comparison may be product of convergence due to limited possibilities.

26687

*ka₂ conditional, if

3147

PAN *ka₂ conditional, if

Formosan
Paiwan	u ka	if ... were to
	ka na i-ka	if not ... then
WMP
Tboli	ke	if
Lawangan	a-kaʔ	if
Gayō	ka	if
OC
Makatea	ka	if
Samoan	ʔa-na	if

30941

*ka₃ oblique case marker for plural personal names

8800

PAN *ka₃ oblique case marker for plural personal names

Formosan
Saisiyat	ka¹	nominative and accusative case marker for common nouns
Atayal	kaʔ	nominative case marker for common nouns
Pazeh	ka	topic marker
Bunun	ka	nominative case marker (no personal/common distinction)
Rukai (Budai)	ka	oblique case marker for common nouns
Proto-Rukai	*ka	nominative case marker for common nouns (Ross 2006:529)
WMP
Isneg	ka	objective and locative case marker for common nouns (McFarland 1977)
Itawis	ka-n	objective, locative and oblique case marker for common nouns (McFarland 1977)
	ka-n-i	oblique case marker for the singular of personal names (Tharp and Natividad 1976)
	ka-n-da	oblique case marker for the plural of personal names (Tharp and Natividad 1976)
Malaweg	ka	objective and locative case marker for common nouns (McFarland 1977)
Itneg (Binongan)	ka-n	possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Kapampangan	ka-ŋ	possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Tagalog	ka-y	oblique case marker for personal nouns
Bikol	ka	possessive plural of personal names (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Bikol (Camarines Sur)	ka-n	agentive, genitive and oblique case marker for common nouns (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Kinaray-a	ka-ŋ	agentive, genitive and oblique case marker for common nouns (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Waray-Waray	ka-n	possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Cebuano	ka-ŋ	possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Tausug	ka-n	possessive plural of personal names (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983)
Malay	ka-	a locative prefix corresponding to “ward” (upward, downward, inward, outward, Northward, etc.)
Mentawai	ka	in, at, to, towards, from here, among, out of
Rejang	ka-	to, towards
Sundanese	ka	to, towards
Madurese	ka	to
Balinese	ka	to; go to; at
Mongondow	ko	preposition: at, on, to, towards, between, from
Note: ¹ Ross (2006:529) gives Saisiyat ka as marking both NOM and ACC, but according to Li (1978:600), and Zeitoun (to appear) it marks only the ACC.

31771

*ka₄ 2sg. subject pronoun

9941

PMP *ka₄ 2sg. subject pronoun

WMP
Yami	ka	2sg. nominative
Itbayaten	ka	you (sg.)
Ibatan	ka	2sg. nominative
Ilokano	-ka	2sg. (familiar) absolutive enclitic pronoun
Isneg	ka	you; nominative and accusative of the abbreviated form of the personal pronoun of the second person singular: ikáw
Itawis	ka	you, 2sg nominative pronoun
Bontok	ka	2nd person minimal pronoun; you (sg.)
Kankanaey	ka	thou, thee; you
Casiguran Dumagat	ta	2sg. topic pronoun
Ibaloy	ka	you, 2sg. topic set
Pangasinan	ka	you, sg., familiar, topic pronoun
Ayta Abellan	ka	2sg. subject pronoun, you
Kapampangan	(-)ka	you (sg.); ing-case, non-emphasized
Tagalog	ka	pronoun, the postpositive form of ikáw, you (singular)
Bikol	ka	you; si-class second person singular pronoun
Hanunóo	ká	you (singular); occurs mainly in certain set phrases; in all of them, however, ká may be replaced by the more frequently used káwu
Romblomanon	ka	you (sg.); occurs as sentence topic following the predicate; for the topic pronoun preceding the predicate see íkaw
Masbatenyo	ka	2sg topic pronoun; this pronoun occurs only as a clitic to verbs and particles
Aklanon	ka	you singular (contraction of ikáw)
Waray-Waray	ka	you (used in postpositive form)
Hiligaynon	ka	you (short form of ikáw)
Palawano	ka	2sg. subject pronoun, you
Cebuano	ka	short for ikáw used in constructions requiring the nominative except the predicate
Central Tagbanwa	ka	2sg nominative pronoun, used as focused participant in verbal clauses, you
Maranao	ka	you -- primary
Binukid	ka	2sg topic pronoun: you
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ka	2sg topic pronoun
Molbog	ko	2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = aka)
Rungus Dusun	ko	2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ikow)
Lingkabau	kə	2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ikaw)
Abai Sembuak	ko	2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = oko)
Bisaya (Sabah)	ko	2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ikow)
Bulungan	ka	2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ika)
CMP
Buruese	ka	thou
OC
Mota	ka	2sg, subject pronoun

Note: The exact function of this pronoun remains unclear. It seems to correspond to *=ka(hu) ‘2sg., NOM2’ in Ross (2006:542), although that by itself does not advance our understanding. In at least Proto-Philippines *ka evidently was a post-predicate clitic that corresponded in function to the free-standing *i-kahu in pre-predicate position. This raises the question whether the occurence of free-standing and clitic pronouns in syntactic complementation was unique to the second person singular, or was a feature of the pronoun system in general. Since there is little comparative evidence to support the latter alternative, it seems likely that the 2sg. pronoun allowed this option, while other persons and numbers did not.

32005

*ka₅ (human) member of a category

10232

POC *ka₅ (human) member of a category [doublet: *kai]

OC
Tabar	ka	man
Mendak	ka-dioŋ	stranger, foreigner
Bulu	ka-ka tara	person (tara = ‘mature’)
Ormu	ka-ru	person
Manam	ka-leti	foreigner, white man

Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (1985), and more recently by Ross and Osmond (2016:49-50).

26685

*ka-₁ marker of past time in temporal expressions

3145

PAN *ka-₁ marker of past time in temporal expressions

Formosan
Paiwan	tiaw	day before or after today
	nu-tiaw	tomorrow
	ka-tiaw	yesterday
	nu-ŋida	when (future)?
	ka-ŋida	when (past)?
WMP
Ivatan	ka-	past, in temporal expressions
	ka-koyab	yesterday (cp. ma-koyab ‘afternoon’)
Itneg (Binongan)	ka-gídaŋ	yesterday (cp. gídaŋ ‘afternoon’)
Tagalog	ka-gabí	yesterday (cp. gabí ‘night, evening’)
Mansaka	kagabi	yesterday
Tausug	kahapun	yesterday
Kadazan Dusun	koniap	yesterday
Minangkabau	ka-pataŋ	yesterday (cp. pataŋ ‘evening’)
Sangir	ka-hebi	yesterday (cp. hebi ‘night’)
Bantik	kanehabaʔ	yesterday
Mongondow	ko-gobii	the previous night (cp. gobii ‘night’)

Note: The Kadazan Dusun and Bantik words contain a reflex of *niRab, *neRab ‘yesterday’. All other extra-Formosan forms are based on the word for ‘afternoon, evening’ (PMP *Rabiqi, PPh *hapun). Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *ka- ‘perfective verb prefix’.

31589

*ka-₂ stative marker in irrealis constructions, counterpart to *ma- in realis constructions

9727

PAN *ka-₂ stative marker in irrealis constructions, counterpart to *ma- in realis constructions

Formosan
Kavalan	qa-	immediate future: qa-patay ‘will die’ (cp m-patay ‘to die, be dead’)
Amis	ka-	connective in negative word combinations where ma- would be used in a positive statement (Fey 1986:370): caay ka-fanaɁ kako ‘I don’t know’ (cp. ma-fanaɁ kako ‘I know’)
Thao	ka-	prefix of uncertain function: k-acay ‘Drop dead!’ (a curse expressed in anger; cp. m-acay ‘die, be dead’)
WMP
Bontok	ka-	a stative prefix occurring only on verbs preceded by the auxiliary daan (‘yet, still’): daan ka-loto ‘not yet cooked’ (cp. loto ‘to cook’)
Kankanaey	ka-	stative marker in negative constructions: adi ka-atéy ‘not to die, etc.’ (cp. m-atéy ‘dead’)

Note: For further details on this prefix cf. Blust (2003b).

31590

*ka-₃ stative prefix marking high degree of some quality; extremely; superlative marker

9728

PPh *ka-₃ stative prefix marking high degree of some quality; extremely; superlative marker

WMP
Yami	ka-	‘very’ (in comparative constructions): ka-tava-tava ‘very fat’ (cp. ma-tava ‘fat’)
Ilokano	ka-	with the particle idí, the ka- prefix with an adjectival root translates that the quality of the adjective is at the highest level: idí ka-pintás-na ‘at the highest level of his/her/its beauty’ (cp. pintás ‘beauty’)
Kapampangan	ka-	prefix with descriptive bases; produces emphatic descriptives
Aklanon	ka-	very productive adjective prefix, indicating a high degree (when standing alone), or the superlative (when with the -an suffix) ka-gwápo ‘very good looking’ (cp. gwápo ‘handsome’)
Hiligaynon	ka-	adjective formative affix designating comparative and superlative degrees of comparison: ka-tahúm sa ímu ‘How beautiful you are!’ (cp. ma-tahúm ‘beautiful, pretty’)
Cebuano	ka-	prefix added to adjectives in exclamations: ka-gwápu sa ímu-ŋ baláy ‘What a beautiful house you have!’ (cp. gwápu ‘beautiful, good-looking’); ka-dákuɁ ‘How big it is!’ (cp. dákuɁ ‘big, great’)

31591

*ka-₄ mate, partner, cohort

9729

PPh *ka-₄ mate, partner, cohort

WMP
Yami	ka-	company, co-: ka-kteh ‘fellow brothers and sisters, siblings’ (cp. mi-keteh ‘sibling relationship’)
Itbayaten	ka-	corresponding one, mate: ka-yvan ‘companion, escort’ (cp. ivan-an ‘to accompany, escort’); ka-kovot ‘spouse’ (cp. mi-chovot ‘to become spouses to one another’)
Ilokano	ka-	transitive verbal prefix indicating companionship of the action expressed by the root (ka-sala ‘to dance with someone’, ka-sao ‘to speak with someone’)
Ilongot	ka-	mate, partner: ka-duwa ‘companion’ (cp. duwa ‘two’)
Pangasinan	ka-	person or thing proximate to oneself: ka-aráp ‘one who is in front’ (cp. aráp ‘front’)
Bikol	ka-	prefix that creates nouns of accompanied action: ka-úlay ‘the person one is talking to’ (cp. maki-úlay ‘to converse with’)
Cebuano	ka-	affix forming nouns which mean ‘one’co-[noun]’: aku-ŋ ka-klási ‘my classmate’ (cf. klási ‘class, kind’), aku-ŋ ka-áway ‘my opponent’ (cp. áway ‘to quarrel, fight’)
Tondano	ka-	derives animate nouns indicating a person who shares the thing expressed by the stem: ka-Ɂawu ‘spouse’ (cp. awu ‘kitchen, hearth’); ka-wanua ‘fellow villager’ (cp. wanua ‘village’)

31592

*ka-₅ formative for abstract nouns of quality

9730

PAN *ka-₅ formative for abstract nouns of quality

Formosan
Amis	ka-	active verbal particle: ka-tayal ‘work as an activity not necessarily in process’ (cp. ma-tayal ‘refers to the activity of working’)
WMP
Itbayaten	ka-	creates abstract nouns of quality: ka-vayah ‘redness’ (cp. vayah ‘red color’)
Bontok	ka-	derivational prefix forming an abstract noun: ka-dalem ‘depth’ (cp. ‘deep’)
Ifugaw	ka-	creates abstract nouns: ka-tagu ‘manhood’ (cp. tagu ‘man, human being’)
Aklanon	ka-	noun prefix: ka-támɁis ‘sweetness’ (cp. ma-támɁis ‘sweet’)
Cebuano	ka-	affix added to adjectives to form nouns which mean ‘the state of being [so-and-so]’: ka-súbuɁ sadness’ (cp. súbuɁ ‘sad’)
Manobo (Sarangani)	ke-	certain nouns are derived from adjective or verb roots by using the prefix ke-: ke-init ‘heat, warmth’ (cp. init ‘hot, warm’); ke-okit ‘passage’ (cp. okit ‘travel’)
Malagasy	ha-	formative added to adjectives to make them into abstract nouns: ha-tsara ‘goodness’ (cp. tsara ‘good’)
Sasak	kə-	formative for abstract nouns: kə-bəleɁ ‘size, magnitude’ (cp. bəleɁ ‘big, large’); kə-kodeɁ ‘smallness’ (cp. kodeɁ ‘small’)
Mongondow	ko-	marker of abstract nouns: ko-loben ‘size, magnitude’ (cp. mo-loben ‘large’)
Banggai	ka-	formative of abstract nouns from adjectival bases: ka-lanak ‘greasiness’ (cp. ma-lanak ‘greasy’)
Wolio	ka-	formative for deverbal nouns: ka-bari ‘number, quantity’ (cp. bari ‘be many, much); ka-pii ‘illness’ (cp ma-pii ‘ill’)
Muna	ka-	deverbal noun denoting the abstraction of the verbal quality’: ka-tehi ‘fear’ (cp. tehi ‘afraid’); ka-ghosa ‘strength, hardness, health’ (cp. ghosa ‘strong, hard’)

31593

*ka-₆ manner in which an action is carried out

9731

PWMP *ka-₆ manner in which an action is carried out

WMP
Mapun	ka-	nominalizer with adjectives or stative verbs indicating the manner of doing an action
Tausug	ka-	nominalizer indicating the manner of doing an action: ka-kadtu ‘his getting there’ (cp. kadtu ‘go or take something to a place’)
Toba Batak	ha-	the time at which, place whence, or even the particular way in which the content of the verb takes place: ha-pogos ‘suffering poverty, being poor’ (cp. pogos ‘poor’)

31594

*ka-₇ past participle/achieved state

9732

PMP *ka-₇ past participle/achieved state

WMP
Murut (Timugon)	ka-	marker of achieved states: ka-aguy ‘tired’ (cp. (ma-aguy ‘is tired’)
Ma'anyan	ka-	marker of past participle or achieved states: ka-reŋey ‘heard’ (cp. reŋey ‘to hear’); ka-ituŋ ‘remembered’ (cp. ituŋ ‘to remember’)
Old Javanese	ka-	passive prefix: the ka- passive refers more to the state achieved, in contrast to the -in- passive, which refers more to the action: ka-bebed ‘bound, entwined’ (cp. bebed ‘band, tie, bandage’); ka-dawut ‘uprooted’ (cp. dawut ‘pull out, uproot’)
Makassarese	ka-	prefix that forms adjectives carrying a sense of being caused or brought about: ka-mallaɁ-mallaɁ ‘struck with fear’ (cp. mallaɁ ‘afraid’)
OC
Nggela	ka-	prefix forming past participles: ka-mbihu ‘broken off’ (cp. mbihu ‘to separate, break apart’)
Fijian	ka-	marker of achieved states: ka-basu ‘torn open’ (cp. basu ‘break open a person’s eyes or mouth’)

31597

*ka- -an₁ marker of the adversative passive

9736

PAN *ka- -an₁ marker of the adversative passive

Formosan
Pazeh	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-udan-an ‘be soaked with rain, be caught in the rain’ (cf. udan ‘rain’); ka-akux-an ‘heatstroke; be overcome by heat’ (cf. paka-akux ‘to warm up, to heat’); ka-bari-an ‘be blown about by the wind’ (cf. bari ‘wind’)
Paiwan	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-sulem-an ‘be caught by darkness’ (cp.sulem ‘darkness, twilight’)
WMP
Yami	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-cimoy-an ‘be rained on (as something left outside)’ (cf. cimoy ‘rain’)
Itbayaten	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-timoy-an ‘to be caught by rain’ (cf. timoy ‘rain’); k-aɁxep-an ‘be caught by night, benighted’ (cf.aɁxep ‘night’)
Mapun	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-lasuh-an ‘to be angry (at s.o. or about s.t.); (cf. lasu ‘anger’); ka-saŋom-am ‘be overtaken by the night (i.e. for night to come while one is doing something) (cf. saŋom ‘night, the period from about 6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.); ka-uwan-an ‘to be rained on’ (cf. uwan ‘rain’)
Bahasa Indonesia	kə- -an	marker of the adversative passive; kə-hujan-an ‘be caught in the rain, be caught in a downpour’ (cf. hujan ‘rain’); kə-siaŋ-an ‘to oversleep’ (cf. siaŋ ‘bright daylight’); kə-tidur-an ‘to fall asleep inadvertently (as when needing to stay awake)’ (cf. tidur ‘sleep’); kə-panas-an ‘be overcome by the heat of the sun’ (cf. panas ‘hot’)
Toba Batak	ha- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ha-udan-an ‘caught in the rain’ (cf. udan ‘rain’); ha-borŋin-an ‘to be overaken by nightfall’ (cf. borŋin ‘night’)
Sundanese	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-hujan-an ‘stand or walk in the rain; be rained on, be caught in the rain’ (cp. hujan ‘rain’)
Old Javanese	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-turw-an ‘overcome by sleep, falling asleep, dropping off’ (cf. turū ‘to sleep’); k-āŋin-an ‘moved (driven) by the wind; in the wind’; ka-panas-an ‘suffering from the heat; angry’
Javanese	kə- -an	marker of the adversative passive; k-odan-an ‘to get rained on’ (cf. udan ‘rain’); kə-turo-n ‘to drop off to sleep accidentally, to doze’ (cf. turu ‘to sleep’)
Sangir	ka- -aŋ	ka-hebi—aŋ ‘overcome by darkness, benighted’ (cp. hebi ‘night’)
Tae'	ka- -an	marker of the adversative passive; ka-uran-an ‘caught in the rain’ (cf. uran ‘rain’)

Note: In some languages the adversative passive is expressed by the suffix *-an alone, as with Tausug ulan-an ‘to be rained on’, from ulan ‘rain’, or with the suffix *-an and some other prefix, as with Ilokano ma-tudú-an ‘to be caught in the rain’, from túdo ‘rain’. In a more limited set of languages in western Indonesia it is expressed by the circumfix *ka- -en, as with Karo Batak k-udan-en ‘timid, as goats that run to their stall when the rain begins’.

31598

*ka- -an₂ formative for nouns of location

9737

PAN *ka- -an₂ formative for nouns of location

Formosan
Saisiyat	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-Ɂælop-an ‘hunting ground’ (cp. Ɂælop ‘to hunt’)
Amis	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-tayal-an ‘place of business’ (cp. tayal ‘work’)
Thao	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-kalhus-an ‘sleeping place’ (cp. kalhus ‘to sleep’)
Paiwan	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-ki-tjalav-an ‘athletic field’ (cp. ki-tjala-tjalaw ‘fight over something; to contest’); ka-tsasav-an ‘courtyard in front of house’ (cp. tsasaw ‘outdoors, outside’)
WMP
Ifugaw	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-kayu-an ‘place where there is firewood’ (cp. kayu ‘tree, wood’)
Pangasinan	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-aboŋ-an ‘houses, group of houses’ (cp. aboŋ ‘house’)
Bikol	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-umah-an ‘an expanse of farmland’ (cp. uma ‘farm’)
Mapun	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-batuh-an ‘a rocky area’ (cp. batu ‘stone, rock’)
Toba Batak	ha- -an	formative for nouns of location; ha-mate-an ‘place where one has died’ (cp. mate ‘die’)
Javanese	ka- -an	formative for nouns of location; ka-lurah-an ‘residence of the top village official’ (cp. lurah ‘top village official’)

31599

*ka- -an₃ formative for abstract nouns (often deverbal)

9738

PAN *ka- -an₃ formative for abstract nouns (often deverbal)

Formosan
Paiwan (Western)	ka- -an	formative for abstract nouns; ka-vavaian-an ‘womanhood, femininity, value as a woman’ (cp. vavaian ‘woman, female person’
WMP
Tagalog	ka- -an	formative for abstract nouns; ka-takút-an ‘fear’ (cp. ma-tákot ‘to be afraid’)
Bikol	ka- -an	formative for abstract nouns; ka-asgad-án ‘saltiness’ (cp. ma-asgád ‘salty, saline’)
Malay	kə- -an	formative for abstract nouns; kə-ada-an ‘existence’ (cp. ada ‘be, exist’)
Toba Batak	ha- -an	formative for abstract nouns; ha-mate-an ‘death’ (cp. mate ‘die’)
Javanese	ka- -an	formative for abstract nouns; ka-urip-an ‘life, existence’ (cp. urip ‘living, alive’)
Tae'	ka- -an	formative for abstract nouns; ka-mate-an ‘time of death’ (cp. mate ‘die, dead’)

Note: Possibly the same circumfix as *ka- -an₂, but none of the nouns formed by this process have a clear locative sense. It is worth noting that some languages use the same affixed form in both locative and general abstract senses, as with Toba Batak ha-mate-an ‘place where one has died’ (cf. *ka- -an₂), and ha-mate-an ‘death’ (*ka- -an₃).

31602

*kabá anxious, nervous

9745

PPh *kabá anxious, nervous

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kabá-kabá	to be anxious, perplexed
Tagalog	kabá	palpitation of the heart or pulse; twitter; an excited condition; to feel nervous; to have a premonition of something
Bikol	kabá	fright
	ma-kaba-án	to get a fright; to be startled,
	mag-kabá-kabá	to throb (as the heart); to palpitate

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan in Ilokano.

31897

*kábag gas pains

10107

PPh *kábag gas pains

WMP
Ilokano	kábag	gas pain; flatulence
	kabág-an	to have gas pains
Casiguran Dumagat	kábag	flatulence, gas pain
Tagalog	kábag	gas pain; flatulence
Aklanon	kábag	to have gas pains (in stomach), suffer from hyperacidity or indigestion
Agutaynen	ag-kabag-an	for someone to have gas pains, bloating
Cebuano	kábag	to have gas pains; gas pains

31603

*kabal₁ clothing

9746

PAN *kabal₁ clothing [disjunct: *kabaR]

Formosan
Kavalan	qabar	clothes, bag or coverlet made from hemp fibre
WMP
Itbayaten	kavax	clothing, garment
Agutaynen	kabal	the thin, cellophane-like membrane that sometimes covers a newborn infant when it is born

31935

*kabal₂ invulnerable, invulnerability

10151

PWMP *kabal₂ invulnerable, invulnerability [doublet: *kebel]

WMP
Ilokano	kabál	breastplate; armor; bulletproof vest
	kab-kabal-an	surgeonfish: Acanthurus triostegus
Tagalog	kabál	a potion, charm or talisman supposed to render one invulnerable against knives, daggers, bullets, etc.
	kabál sa sakít	immunity; reistance to disease, poison, etc
Bikol	kabál	an amulet which has the power of making its possessor invulnerable to the bolo and the spear, rendering these weapons dull, or suspending them in air upon attack; generally a circular piece of copper with a hole in the center, or a bit of shell roughly carved into the shape of an aníto (ancestral spirit) noted for particularly admired exploits (Bikol mythology)
Hanunóo	kabál	defensive power believed to make the owner virtually invulnerable, i.e., indestructible by ordinary weapons
Ngaju Dayak	kabal ~ gabal	thick-skinned so that one is not harmed by blows
Javanese	ŋawal	to guard, escort
Bare'e	kaba	invulnerable
Tae'	kaban	invulnerable, possessing a magical charm that makes one invulnerable so that the point of a lance or a bullet cannot penetrate the body

Note: Some of these forms may be loans from Malay, but this seems unlikely for the lot.

31573

*kaban₁ companion, member of a group (of animals or people); friend

9700

PWMP *kaban₁ companion, member of a group (of animals or people); friend

WMP
Hanunóo	kabán	togetherness, companionship
Ngaju Dayak	kawan	herd (of animals), flock (of birds), school (of fish); throng, crowd, multitude; species, kind; relationship
	ha-kawan	stay together in herds
	ma-ŋa-ŋawan	be together in little bands
Malagasy	hávana	a relation, an alliance, a friend
	haván-ina	to be entered into relationship with; to be consorted with
Iban	kaban	kinsman, relation; companion, follower, supporter; group, band, herd, member of group
Malay	kawan	company; party; herd; comrade; companion; friend; follower (refers to any group of living things, as a herd of elephants, flock of goats, swarm of bees, or band of robbers)
	me-ŋawan	to couple; to pair (of animals)
Acehnese	kawan	herd, flock, crowd; friend, comrade, companion, mate; follower; assistant; adherent
Toba Batak	haban	a herd, as of cattle
Rejang	kabeun	group, party, crowd
Old Javanese	kawan	companion; group
	sa-kawan	a group (belonging together)
	sama-kawan	together, in a group
	sa-kawan-an	in groups

9701

PMP *maR-kaban to be friends with, to be a companion of

WMP
Hanunóo	mag-kabán	go together as companions
Malagasy	mi-hávana	to be in a state of friendship with, to be on friendly terms with, to show friendship towards

Note: Also Tagalog káwan ‘herd; a number of animals together; flock; a group of animals or birds of one kind; swarm; a group of bees that fly off together to start a new colony; a large group of insects flying or moving about together; a school (of fish); multitude; a large number’; mag-káwan ‘to form a flock, aherd, a group or a school’.

31614

*kaban₂ storage chest

9760

PWMP *kaban₂ storage chest

WMP
Isneg	kabān	chest, trunk, box
Itawis	kabán	large chest, trunk
Ifugaw (Batad)	kaban	a miniature house sepulchre for the dead, of traditional design (used only for a rich person)
Casiguran Dumagat	kaban	wooden chest
Pangasinan	kabán	a trunk for storing clothes, etc.
Tagalog	kabán	chest or trunk, esp. one for clothes
Bikol	kabán	chest, trunk, coffer
	mag-kabán	to place something into a chest
Hanunóo	kabán	trunk, chest for storage; seen by Hanunóo in Christian barrios
Aklanon	kabán	footlocker, trunk (for clothes)
Agutaynen	kaban	a wooden box or trunk used like a bag or suitcase (these boxes were used in the past and are rarely used today)
Cebuano	kabán	trunk, chest; to store in a trunk
	kabán-kabán	kind of bivalve, so called because it opens and closes like a trunk
Maranao	kaban	chest, case, box
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kavan	a trunk; a large wooden box
Tausug	kaban	a closed coffin
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kaban	small wooden box

Note: Also Malay kəban ‘a four-cornered matwork bag’, Toba Batak hobon ‘very large round rice container made of bamboo strips’. Possibly a loan, but if so the source is yet to be determined.

31604

*kabáŋ spotted, dappled

9747

PPh *kabáŋ spotted, dappled

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kabáŋ	term for a spotted domestic pig
Ibaloy	kabaŋ	animals with white spots, mixed with color, on its fur
Tagalog	kabáŋ	multi-colored; varicolored; spotted; white patch of skin on face or arms (used in some areas)
Bikol	kabáŋ	two-toned; half and half (color, contents)
Cebuano	kabáŋ	spotted, splotched; unevenly painted or cut
Maranao	kabaŋ	spotted
Mansaka	kábaŋ	to be spotted or striped (as an animal); to be nonuniform; to be variegated
Tboli	kabaŋ	to make something spotted, speckled black and white
Tausug	kabaŋ	spotted, piebald (of animals, fish, material, etc.)
Mongondow	kabaŋ	white spots on the skin; also scar

Note: Also Tiruray kabaŋ ‘of mixed color; (of animals only) spotted’.

31605

(Formosan only)

*kabaR clothing

9748

PAN *kabaR clothing [disjunct: *kabal]

Formosan
Kavalan	qabar	clothes, bag or coverlet made from hemp fibre
Paiwan	kava	clothing
	pa-kava	to clothe
	s<m>u-kava	to take off clothes
	k<m>ava	to put on or wear clothing
Paiwan (Western)	kava	snake slough

30797

*kabasi kind of marine fish, probably gizzard shad: Anodontostoma spp.

8541

PWMP *kabasi kind of marine fish, probably gizzard shad: Anodontostoma spp.

WMP
Ilokano	kabási	kind of large marine fish, gizzard shad: Anodontostoma spp.
Casiguran Dumagat	kabáse	small-mouthed threadfin fish: Polynemus microstoma
Aklanon	kabási	kind of fish
	k<in>abási	bolo (having shape of kabási)
Cebuano	kabási	gizzard shad: Nematalosa nasus, and Anodontostoma chacunda
Maranao	kabasi	fish --- herring
Malay	ikan kebasi	bony bream or hairback, Dorosoma spp. (name on east coast of Malay peninsula)

Note: Also Tagalog kabásiʔ ‘species of fish: gizzard shad’.

31629

*kabat₁ wrap, bundle up

9781

PWMP *kabat₁ wrap, bundle up

WMP
Ilokano	kabát-en	to package, bundle, pack up
Maranao	baŋkat ^<M	to pack, to tie; band
Minangkabau	kabat	binding round; band; wrapper; circlet

Note: Also Malay kəbat ‘binding round; band; wrapper; circlet’. This form suggests that Minangkabau kabat may reflect a form with penultimate schwa, thus invalidating this comparison on the PWMP level and leaving it weak on the PPh level.

31746

*kabat₂ canoes joined together side-by-side (?)

9915

POC *kabat₂ canoes joined together lengthwise (?)

OC
Gedaged	kapat	a raft; several logs thrown over a ditch or stream
Motu	kapa-kapa	small canoes joined together without space between

Note: Possibly a chance resemnblance. Gedaged clearly loses original final consonants in most forms, but has apparent retentions in enough cases to leave open the question whether in any given comparison it may preserve a final consonant that was lost in most Oceanic languages.

32006

*kabatíti a vine with gourd or cucumber-like fruit, probably Luffa sp.

10233

PPh *kabatíti a vine with gourd or cucumber-like fruit, probably Luffa sp.

WMP
Ivatan	kabatiti	a vine with edible, long cylindrical fruits: Luffa cylindrica (Rubino 2000)
Ibatan	kabatiti	a kind of luffa
Ilokano	kabatíti	a vine with edible, long cylindrical fruits: Luffa cylindrica
Isneg	kabatíti	a scandent, cucurbitaceous, herbaceous vine with large leaves, yellow flowers and oblong, cylindric, green, ribbed or smooth fruits that are used for vegetables; taboo to trappers that have come home after having constructed a balét trap (bow or spear trap for deer or wild boars)
Kankanaey	kabatíti	a cucurbitaceous vine with yellow flowers, cultivated for its edible fruit: Luffa sp.
Casiguran Dumagat	kabatíti	variety of uncultivated plant (leaves are boiled with fish as a vegetable)
Tagalog	kabatéte	the Javan cucumber, a gourd-bearing liana belonging to the pumpkin family: Alsomitra macrocarpa Roem. Cucurbitaceae
Bagobo	kabatiti	a shrub: Callicarpa caudata Maxim., Verbenaceae

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan, although this appears unlikely both because of the wide and scattered distribution from the Batanes Islands to southern Mindanao, with an apparent near-absence of the form throughout the central Philippines, and because of the manner in which beliefs about this plant are deeply embedded in some of the cultures of northern Luzon, as the Isneg gloss shows.

30178

*kabe₁ a jointed creeper which yields fiber used to make cordage and fishnets

6977

POC *kabe₁ a jointed creeper which yields fiber used to make cordage and fishnets

OC
Lou	kam	kind of fiber from a jointed vine, used to make cordage for nets
Loniu	kap	string made of vine fiber
Nali	kap	fishing line
Lakalai	la abe	vine used for cordage
Nggela	gambe	species of creeper used for twine of fishing nets
Arosi	ʔabe	a creeping, jointed plant, from whose strands string is made; a woman’s string girdle
Fijian	kabe	the skin covering the coconut leaf stalk, and used for tying

30468

*kabe₂ wing

7662

POC *kabe₂ wing

OC
Motu	ape	wing
Vartavo	γaβe-n	wing
Rerep	xambe-n	wing

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31619

*kabég large fruit bat

9770

PPh *kabég large fruit bat

WMP
Kapampangan	kabág	a kind of bat (mammal)
	má-kabág	bat-infested
Aklanon	kabóg	fruit bat
Cebuano	kabúg	kind of large fruit bat with a dark brown color, growing to a five or even seven foot wingspan; the flesh is highly esteemed
Maranao	kabeg	bat
Binukid	kabeg	kind of large fruit bat
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kaveg	giant fruit bat
Mansaka	kabug	large kind of bat, measuring 30 cm. in length
Tboli	kebeg	Greater Philippine short-nosed or dog-faced fruit bat: Ptenochirus jagorii

Note: Also Tagalog kabág ‘a species of fruit bat; a large bat’, Binukid kabal ‘kind of large bat’, Tiruray kabeg ‘a giant fruit bat: Pteropus vampyrus lenensis Mearns.’ (Danaw loan). The semantic distinction between this term and reflexes of PMP *paniki ‘fruit bat, flying fox’, both of which are reflected in a number of Philippine languages, remains unclear.

31747

*kabej tie up, tie by wrapping around

9916

PWMP *kabej tie up, tie by wrapping around

WMP
Cebuano	kabúd	tie ropes, strings, wires around something large
Minangkabau	kabat	binding round; band; wrapper; circlet

Note: Also Malay kəbat ‘binding round; band; wrapper; circlet’. With root *-bej ‘wind around repeatedly’.

32007

*kab(e)liŋ kind of aromatic herb: Pogostemon cablin

10234

PPh *kab(e)liŋ kind of aromatic herb: Pogostemon cablin

WMP
Ilokano	kablíŋ	species of aromatic herb with pink-purple flowers: Pogostemon cablin
Tagalog	kablíŋ	a species of aromatic herb

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan in Ilokano.

31621

*kab(e)lít touch someone lightly, as to get attention

9773

PPh *kab(e)lít touch someone lightly, as to get attention

WMP
Isneg	kabbít	to touch
Pangasinan	káblit	to touch lightly
Bikol	mag-kablít	to touch someone on the arm or touch someone’s clothing to get his attention
Aklanon	káblit	to touch lightly with one’s finger
Cebuano	kablít	to touch, move something by curling the fingers; ask a favor readily from a close acquaintance or friend
	gi-k<in>ablit	to play a guitar
Binukid	kablit	to touch, move (something) by curling the fingers; to pluck (guitar strings)
Mansaka	kablit	to touch lightly (so as to get attention)
Tausug	kablit	to touch (something) with a flicking motion of the finger, to strum (a guitar)

Note: Also Bikol mag-kiblít ‘to touch someone on the arm or touch someone’s clothing to get his attention’. Mapun mag-kabbit ‘to pluck or play a guitar or stringed instrument; to flick someone with one’s fingers in a manner one would pluck an instrument and immediately withdraw the hand (usually in order to get someone’s attention)’ is assumed to be a loan from a Greater Central Philippines source.

33606

*kab(e)lit to touch lightly

12346

PPh *kab(e)lit to touch lightly

WMP
Ibaloy	kabdit	trigger of a gun and other similar devices
	kabdit-en	to pull such a trigger
Pangasinan	káblit	to touch lightly
Aklanon	káblit	to touch lightly with one’s finger
Binukid	kablit	to touch, move (something) by curling the fingers; to pluck, as guitar strings
Mansaka	kablit	to touch lightly (so as to get attention)

31890

*kabi to catch, as in a trap

10097

POC *kabi to catch, as in a trap

OC
Tolai	kap ~ kapi	to catch, take, as a bird in a trap
Gedaged	abi	to take hold of, grab, seize, grasp, clutch, take
Motu	abi-a	to have, hold
'Āre'āre	kapi	a trap

Note: Apparently distinct from PAn *kapit ‘fasten together by sewing or tying’.

31620

*kábig to turn around, as a boat

9771

PPh *kábig to turn around, as a boat

WMP
Ilokano	kábig	to turn (a steering wheel)
Bikol	mag-kábig	to set a boat back on course by turning it with an oar

9772

PPh *kabíg-en to turn around, as a boat

WMP
Ilokano	kabíg-en	to turn (a steering wheel)
Bikol	kabíg-on	to set a boat back on course by turning it with an oar

26607

*kabiR draw toward oneself; annex, make subject

3065

PWMP *kabiR draw toward oneself; annex, make subject

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kábig	to draw or pull something towards oneself (as to hug a person, to scoop up the money in gambling, to scrape dirt into a pile with a shovel; to paddle a canoe drawing the paddle towards you so that the boat will turn)
Tagalog	kábig	act of drawing or pulling towards oneself; vassal, subject, follower
Bikol	mag-kábig	to rake in with the hand (as chips in the game of roulette)
Cebuano	kábig	make something move toward one; to convert
Tiruray	kabig	the extent (geographical or social) of a leader's following, jurisdiction or authority
Malay	kabir	drawing towards oneself. In two senses: 1. (MIN) scooping in, annexing, 2. (MAL) side-paddling
Balinese	kabih	be supported
Tae'	kabeʔ	draw toward oneself; reach for something; grasp at something; stretch the hand out toward

Note: Zorc (1981) proposes Proto-Southern Philippines *kábig ‘take for oneself’.

30301

*kabit₁ hook

7239

PAN *kabit₁ hook [doublet: *kawit]

Formosan
Pazeh	kabit	hook
	mu-kabit	to hook
	saa-kabit	a hook
Amis	kafit	attached to, stuck to; to hang
WMP
Kankanaey	kábit	to hook
Pangasinan	kabít	attach; joint; share a part
Kapampangan	kabít	put, fix, attach
Tagalog	kabít	connected; attached; fastened; united
Bikol	kabít	to attach, fasten, to clamp
Maranao	kabit	hang onto a vehicle
Kadazan Dusun	kavit	to hook, pluck with a hook
Bintulu	sə-kabit	hook at the end of a fruiting pole
Iban	kabit	hang or hook on (as in hooking coins onto the hem of a skirt, or hanging a basket on a branch)
Wolio	kabi	barb on fishhook

Note: Also Ilokano kabʔít ‘hook’, Cebuano kabɁít ‘hook, crook; hook around something, for a crook to catch onto something; cause it to do so’. With root *-bit₁ ‘hook, clasp; grasp with fingers’.

31920

*kabít₂ to lead, support (as a feeble person)

10135

PPh *kabít₂ to lead, support (as a feeble person)

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kabít	to lead someone by the hand; to walk hand in hand
Bikol	mag-kabít	to support, hold up (as a weak person)
Aklanon	kabít	to cling to, hang on to; franchise, collaborate; mistress, paramour
Cebuano	kabít	cling to, hang on to; join in on a transportation franchise on a minor basis; hook up to a telephone with another line; take a paramour or lover

Note: With root *-bit₁ ‘hook, clasp; grasp with fingers’.

33687

*kabit₃ a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc

12434

PPh *kabit₃ a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc

WMP
Ilokano	kabit	a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc
Tagalog	kabit-kabag	a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc

Note: This comparison is taken from Madulid (2001), and could not be confirmed from independent sources.

31630

*kabkáb dig a hole, hollow something out

9782

PPh *kabkáb dig a hole, hollow something out [doublet: *kadkad]

WMP
Bontok	kabkáb	to dig a hole; to hollow a piece of wood, as in making a wooden dish or bucket
Cebuano	kabkáb	dig a hole by scooping out dirt
Sangir	kəɁkabəɁ	a pit, a hollowing out
	ma-kəɁkabəɁ	become hollowed out, become a pit (after digging)
	ma-ŋəɁkabəɁ	go into the depths (of a fish that dives, etc.

31958

*kaboRa catfish

10182

POC *kaboRa catfish

OC
Loniu	kopow ^<A	catfish or catfish eel
Misima	kaboiya	striped catfish: Plotosus lineatus
Lewo	kapwo	catfish
Fijian	kaboa	small black fish that goes about in shoals: catfish, Siluridae

Note: A much extended version of this comparison with many irregular forms was first proposed by Osmond (2011:42). The evidence for *R in the present comparison is confined to Misima. Osmond also includes Nggela i-gabola, which she glosses as ‘catfish sp.’ (with ga- reanalyzed as iga ‘fish’). However, Fox (1955) gives igambola ‘butterfish’.

26608

*kabu-kabu the kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra

3066

PMP *kabu-kabu the kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra [doublet: *kapuk]

WMP
Malay	kabu-kabu	tree-cotton, kapok
Karo Batak	kabu-kabu	kapok tree and fiber
Toba Batak	habu-habu	tree which yields a kind of worthless cotton
Bare'e	ka-kawu	kapok tree: Eriodendrum anfractuosum
Ampana	kawu-kawu	kapok tree: Eriodendrum anfractuosum
Makassarese	kau-kau	kapok tree: Eriodendrum anfractuosum
Wolio	kawu-kawu	the kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra
CMP
Manggarai	kawu	kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra
Rembong	kawu	kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra
Rembong (Wangka)	kawu-kawu	kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra

Note: Also Kamarian kabus ‘the silk cotton, or kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra’. This comparison was first noted in print by Verheijen (1967-70). Mills (1981:64) proposes Proto-South Sulawesi or Proto-Toraja *ka[bw]u ‘kapok tree and fibre’, "Proto-Indonesian’ *ka[bw]u or ? *kabuk, but he cites no evidence from languages outside the southern half of Sulawesi.

31783

*kabuq ladle, dipper, scoop, cup

9959

PMP *kabuq ladle, dipper, scoop, cup

WMP
Cebuano	kabuʔ	dip water, scoop solids out of a container; fetch water; make, use as a water dipper; something used as a dipper or scoop
	kab-an-an	container for fetching water
Maranao	kaboʔ	dipper, container to get water from wells; fetch water

9960

POC *kapuq ladle, dipper, scoop, cup

OC
Tongan	kapu	form into a cup-like shape, esp. a banana leaf
Hawaiian	ʔapu	coconut shell cup

31606

*kabuR to be agitated, of water, as when fish swarm

9749

PPh *kabuR to be agitated, of water, as when fish swarm

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kábur	to boil (water agitated by fish); to worsen, intensify (anger)
	ag-kábur	to boil (water agitated by fish); to worsen, intensify (anger)
Bikol	mag-kabóg	to agitate water with the hand
Maranao	kambog	to stir
	kambog-aw	driving fish into net, trapping fish

Note: Also Malay kəbur ‘driving before one, as beaters drive game; also of driving fish (cf. kəbar); disturbing water to stir up the mud; churning liquid or sand’.

31607

*kabuRaw kind of wild lemon tree, possibly Citrus hystrix

9750

PPh *kabuRaw kind of wild lemon tree, possibly Citrus hystrix

WMP
Yami	kavovoyaw	tree with orange fruit: Tabernaemontana subglobosa
Itbayaten	kavoyaw	a tree that grows on the edge of the forest, with green to yellow-orange fruit that is eaten mostly by goats: Pittosporum oporatum Merr.
Ilokano	kabúraw	a variety of the kabugaw lemon
Cebuano	kabúgaw	kind of astringently sour citrus used for hair rinse and seasoning: Citrus hystrix

Note: Also Amis kamoraw ‘pomelo tree (in some areas)’, Itbayaten kavoogaw ‘kind of orange’, Ilokano kabúgaw ‘a kind of seedy lemon, larger than the daláyap (Citrus lima), kamúyaw ‘kind of wild lemon’, Tagalog kabuyaw ‘a species of citrus tree and its fruit’. Tagalog kabuyaw is best regarded as a Kapampangan loan, and Ilokano kabúgaw as a loan from a still undetermined source. This form appears to have a heavy history of borrowing, but the three forms cited in the main comparison are problem-free, and point unambiguously to *kabuRaw. Note that various species of Pittosporum are called ‘lemon wood’ from the lemony odor of their wood, which seems to be the unifying thread in this comparison.

31595

*kabus₁ run out, come to an end, of supplies; be poor

9733

PMP *kabus₁ run out, come to an end, of supplies; be poor

WMP
Itbayaten	kavos	idea of ending
	ka-kavos	act of concluding or finishing
	om-kavos	to terminate, to finish
Aklanon	kabós	to be short, run short of, not have enough of
Cebuano	kabús	very poor, indigent; to run out of something
Binukid	kabus	(for food, etc.) to be insufficient, run short
Mansaka	kabos	to do completely (as a flood wiping out all the people, someone completely eating all the rice given to him, etc.)
Mapun	kabus	for someone to have run out of something (as money, or provisions when housebound during a typhoon)
Tausug	kabus	lacking, incomplete, deficient, premature
	kabus-un	to be lacking in, be short of, run out (of something)
	kabus-kabus	(of a person) abnormal, mentally handicapped
Sangir	kawusəɁ	a spot that remains uncovered, where the covering doesn’t extend; hiatus, opening; insufficient, inadequate
Tondano	kawus	to finish, use up
Balantak	kabus	finished
Banggai	kabus	all gone, finished, consumed, used up
	maŋa-kabus	to spend, squander
	po-kabus-on	til it is all gone, totally
CMP
Rembong	kabus	gone, used up

Note: Also Binukid kulabus ‘(for food, etc.) to beinsufficient, run short’. With root *-bus ‘finish, end’.

31611

(Formosan only)

*kabus₂ shrimp, lobster

9756

PAN *kabus₂ shrimp, lobster

Formosan
Kavalan	qabus	shrimp (generic), lobster
Puyuma	kabus	shrimp

Note: Possibly a loan distribution, although this seems unlikely since both the Kavalan and Puyuma are in contact with the sea, and there is no obvious reason why the word for such a familiar creature would be borrowed. However, PAn *qudaŋ must be reconstructed with the same meaning based on cognates in Paiwan and many Malayo-Polynesian languages, raising questions about why two terms would coexist with the same reference.

31596

*kabut fog, haze, mist; indistinct, blurry

9734

PMP *kabut fog, haze, mist; indistinct, blurry

WMP
Tombonuwo	kawut	white cloud
Iban	kabut	(of weather) continually bad, stormy
Malay	kabut	anything that blurs or render indistinct
	anjiŋ kabut	a dog with clouded markings
	kabut mata	dim-sightedness
	napas bər-kabut	steamy breath
Toba Batak	habut	fog, haze, mist; turbid; opaque, of a dim lamp, dirty window glass, or something obscure in the distance
Rejang	kabuet	fog, mist, low-lying cloud

9735

POC *kaput₂ fog, haze, mist

OC
Hula	kovu	mist
Motu	ǥahu	mist, fog at sea, haze
Eddystone/Mandegusu	ŋgabu	mist; dust, dirt; rain-cloud, nimbus
Nggela	ŋgavu	haze, mist; hazy, misty
Lau	gafu	indistinct, blurred, of writing or distant object; mist
Arosi	gahu	mist, to be misty, dim
Fijian	kabu	fog, mist, haze

30112

*kacaw disturb

6841

PWMP *kacaw disturb

WMP
Cebuano	kásaw	make noise by splashing in the water (so as, for example, to disturb someone who is fishing)
Iban	kacaw	disturbed, in disorder, confused, troubled, in a stir, annoyed
	kacaw-kacaw	stirring, moving, moved (as leaves stirred by a troupe of monkeys)
Malay	kacaw	jumbled up, mixed indiscriminately
Bahasa Indonesia	kacaw	mixed indiscriminately; tangled, disordered; disturbed, not at peace

26609

*kaCu bring, carry

3067

PAN *kaCu bring, carry

Formosan
Thao	kacu	bring
Paiwan	katsu	carry

7156

PMP *katu send

WMP
Kayan	katoʔ	to send
Totoli	pa-katu	to send
Balaesang	pa-katu	to send
Bare'e	katu	consignment, what is sent; a gift that is sent
Sa'dan Toraja	pa-katu	to send
Proto-South Sulawesi	*katu	to send
Makassarese	pi-katu	to send
CMP
Bimanese	ŋgadu	send
Manggarai	katu	send
Proto-Ambon	*katu	send

6605

PAN *k<in>aCu was brought; what was brought

Formosan
Thao	k<in>acu	was brought
Paiwan	k<in>atsu	something which has been carried

6606

PAN *k<um>aCu to bring, to carry along

Formosan
Thao	k<m>acu	to bring
Paiwan	k<m>atsu	to carry

6607

PAN *pa-kaCu to send

Formosan
Thao	pa-kacu	to send
Paiwan	pa-katsu	cause something to be carried
WMP
Kayan	pe-katoʔ	to send to
Banggai	ka-patu ^<M	send
Tae'	pa-katu	send
Makassarese	pi-katu	send

Note: Also Puyuma kasu ‘take along, bring’, probably a borrowing of Paiwan katsu. A number of the forms in languages of Sulawesi appear to contain a fossilized causative prefix.

31868

*kada stalk or cluster of fruit

10075

POC *kada stalk or cluster of fruit

OC
Motu	ada	stalk (pedicel) of one banana; stalk of various fruits; body of penis; the stalk (pedicel) of a bunch of bananas is kwasi
Roviana	kata-na	bunch or cluster of fruit

31748

*kadadak colic, choleric diarrhoea

9917

PWMP *kadadak colic, choleric diarrhoea [doublet: *kadaqdaq]

WMP
Maranao	kadadak	violent diarrhoea
Malay	kədadak	violent colic; choleric diarrohea

Note: Possibly a Malay loanword in Maranao, although the doublet *kadaqdaq makes this appear less likely.

31959

*kadapuR rain cloud

10183

POC *kadapuR rain cloud

OC
Nauna	cipan kalah	rain cloud (lit. ‘piece of cloud’)
Penchal	kalap	rain cloud
Lenkau	kalap	rain cloud
Loniu	kaʔah	rain cloud
Papitalai	kandrah	cloud, sky
Lindrou	asi kandrah	rain cloud
Bulu	kadavuj	rain
Piva	garavu	rain
Banoni	garau	rain
Gilbertese	karau	rain, rainwater; to rain

Note: A somewhat different version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2003b:142), who cited Loniu kaɁæh ‘cloud’ with a vowel that does not occur in this language (cf. Hamel 1994:15). The form and gloss cited here are drawn from my 1975 fieldnotes.

31749

*kadaqdaq colic, choleric diarrhoea

9918

PWMP *kadaqdaq colic, choleric diarrhoea [doublet: *kadadak]

WMP
Tiruray	kadaʔdaʔ	a sickness involving vomiting and diarrhea, believed to be caused by sorcery
Malay	kədadah	violent colic; choleric diarrohea

26610

*kad(e)rit sound of grating

3068

PWMP *kad(e)rit sound of grating

WMP
Cebuano	kadlít	strike a match
Ngaju Dayak	karit	crunching, gnashing of the teeth

Note: With root *-riC₁ ‘sound of ripping, etc.’.

31960

*kadik large black ant with painful sting, probably bulldog ant

10184

POC *kadik large black ant with painful sting, probably bulldog ant

OC
Bulu	kadi	stinging black ant
Nehan	kadik	red ant that builds nest in trees: Hymenoptera, family Formicidae
	kadik kurum	large black ant found on the ground (has a bad sting which can last for several hours)
Simbo	kadiki	black ant
Nggela	gandi	a species of black ant, bulldog ant
Kwaio	kaa-kadi	stinging black ant
Lau	kadi ~ ka-kadi	bulldog ant
Toqabaqita	kaa-kadi	species of black ant that stings
Fijian	kadi	a large kind of black ant that stings
	kadi damu	a similar kind of red ant that destroys wood

Note: A variant of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011a:391).

31631

*kadkad dig a hole

9783

PPh *kadkad dig a hole [doublet: *kabkáb]

WMP
Bikol	kadkad-ón	to dig a hole with the hand or a stick
	kadkad-án	to dig a hole in
Mansaka	kadkad	to dig
Sangir	kəɁkadəɁ	pit, hole in the ground, in which for example one sets a housepost

32008

*kadro neck

10235

POC *kadro neck

OC
Mussau	alo-	neck
Patpatar	kado-	neck
Roinji	aro-tua-	neck
Motu	gado-	throat, voice, speech, language
Roro	ako-	throat, neck

Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (1985), and more recently by Osmond and Ross (2016:140).

30603

*kaen eat

8008

PAN *kaen eat

Formosan
Kavalan	qan	eat
Amis	kaen	pertaining to food
Thao	kan	eat!, lets eat!
Bunun (Takituduh)	kaʔun	eat
Kanakanabu	kaənə	food
Proto-Rukai	*kanə	to eat
Puyuma	əkan	eat
Paiwan	kan	to eat
WMP
Yami	kan ~ akan	eat
Itbayaten	kan	idea of eating
Isneg	kān	to eat
Itawis	na-kán	eaten
Bontok	ʔək-əkan	feast
	pan-ʔəkan	meal time; time for eating
Kankanaey	kaén	to eat, to eat up
	siŋ-ka-kaén	one meal, one repast
Ifugaw	kan	wordbase conveying the meaning of “eating”, especially cooked rice or sweet potatoes
Ifugaw (Batad)	an	the taste of food; to eat; for a fire to consume something combustible; for a saw to cut into iron, wood
	a-ʔan	the taste of a staple or snack food, such as rice, sweet potato, bread or pastries, fermented rice grains, and fruit
Ibaloy	kan	eat
	ke-ken	food; will eat
Ilongot	kan	to eat
Pangasinan	na-kán	food
Sambal (Botolan)	əkan	to eat
Tagalog	káʔin	consumption of food; consumption of any supply, e.g. fuel
	mag-káʔin	to eat frequently
	pa-kaʔín	food
Bikol	mag-ka-kán	to eat
Hanunóo	káʔun	eating; food
	pag-káʔun	food
Romblomanon	kāʔun	someone or something eats something
Masbatenyo	pag-káʔon	food
Aklanon	káon	to eat; to take (in chess), jump (in checkers)
	pag-káon	food
Waray-Waray	kaon	the act of eating
	pag-kaon	the act of eating
Hiligaynon	kaʔún	eat, devour
Cebuano	káʔun	eat; destroy by fire; consume, use up; take a man in games of chess, checkers and the like; for a man to have sexual relations with a blood relative; for a girl to be old enough to be had for sexual intercourse; for a fish to bite on one’s line
	hi-ŋáʔun	fond of eating
Maranao	kan	eat, feed on
Binukid	kaen	to eat (something)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kaʔan	to eat
Mansaka	kaan	to eat something
	pag-kaan	food
Kalagan	ka:n	to eat
Yakan	mag-ka-kan	to eat
Tboli	ken	food; to eat; to swallow up; to consume, as by fire, debt; to beat an opponent, as in a game
Tausug	kaun	eat
	ka-kaun	food, meal
	pag-kaun	food, meal
Kadazan Dusun	a-kan	to eat, consume, wear away; (in such games as chess) take a piece, destroy (as if by eating)
Tombonuwo	moŋ-o-kan	to eat
Ida'an Begak	kkan	cooked rice (< əkkan < əkan)
	məŋ-əkkan	to eat
Lun Dayeh	a-kan	a meal, food supply
Kayan	kan	food eaten with rice
	mə-kan	to eat vegetables, meat or fish with rice; to always have vegetables or meat for food
Sundanese	ha-kan	to eat, eat up; food
Sangir	kaəŋ	food
Tonsawang	kan	food; to eat
Ponosakan	kaʔan	to eat
Totoli	kaan	to eat
Boano	kaʔan	to eat
Balantak	kaan	to eat
Banggai	poo-kaan	to eat together
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kaaN	eat
Moronene	moŋ-kaa	to eat
CMP
Manggarai	haŋ	to eat, to swallow; eaten by, consumed by (as fire); food; cooked rice
Ngadha	ka	to eat
Li'o	ka	to eat
Solorese	kan	to eat
Kédang	ka	to eat, bite
Kola	-ka	to eat
Bobot	kan	to eat
Masiwang	ken	to eat
Kamarian	aa	to eat
Alune	kane	to eat
Hitu	a	to eat
Tifu	kan	to eat
Soboyo	kañ	to eat
SHWNG
Buli	ān	food; to eat
Minyaifuin	-anan	to eat
Numfor	ān	to eat
Woi	-aŋ	to eat
OC
Vitu	hani	to eat; get infected
	hani-ŋa	food
Sobei	kin	to eat
Kis	an	to eat
Watut	gan	to eat
Wampar	ān	to eat
Rotuman	ʔā	to eat; to use up, go through, consume

8010

PAN *ma-kaen will eat (?)

Formosan
Pazeh	me-ken	to eat
Amis	ma-kaen	to have eaten
Thao	ma-kan	will eat; eat (irrealis)
Puyuma	mə-kan	to eat
Paiwan	ma-kán	be eaten
WMP
Itawis	ma-kan	that which is edible
Bontok	ma-kan	cooked rice
Kankanaey	ma-kán	cooked rice; in tales, however, it may mean any rice
Ifugaw	ma-kán	it is edible
Ifugaw (Batad)	ma-ʔan	a main-dish food, either a staple food, normally eaten with a side dish, or a snack food, as fruits of various varieties, bread or pastries
Casiguran Dumagat	ma-kan	edible
Ibaloy	me-kan	food; will eat
Tagalog	má-káʔin	to be eaten; to have something to eat; to happen to eat something
Romblomanon	ma-kāʔun	will eat
Masbatenyo	ma-kaʔun-káʔun	very edible
Kadazan Dusun	ma-kan	to eat
Bisaya (Limbang)	ma-kan	to eat
Narum	ma-han	to feed
Kayan	ma-kan	to feed animals, etc. (and also used of people)
Kayan (Uma Juman)	ma-kan	to feed (humans)
Malagasy	mamáhana	to feed, to tend, to treat hospitably
Iban	ma-kai	to eat
Malay	ma-kan	to eat; to consume; to wear away; (in chess) to take a pawn or piece; (of weapons) to take effect (e.g. di-makan peluru ‘killed by a bullet’)
	ma-kan-an	food
Acehnese	ma-kan-an	to eat; all food other than rice
Karo Batak	ma-kan-i	to feed, give food to
Toba Batak	ma-ma-han	to feed animals
Old Javanese	a-ma-kan-i	to feed, give someone something to eat
Javanese	ma-kan	to feed an animal
Sangir	ma-kaəŋ	eaten by accident; edible
OC
Kis	an	to eat

8011

PPh *maka-kaen edible, able to be eaten; able to eat

WMP
Yami	máka-ka-kan	able to eat
Isneg	mak-kān	to be able to eat; edible stuff
Bontok	mak-ma-kan	edible
Tagalog	maká-káʔin	edible, can be eaten
Bikol	maka-kán	edible
Romblomanon	maka-kāʔun	able to eat
Note: In contemporary standard Bikol makakán evidently is ma-kakán, but comparative evidence shows that this almost certainly is a reanalysis of earlier maka-kan.

8012

PPh *maki-kaen to eat together, join others in eating

WMP
Yami	maci-akan	eat together with someone
Ibaloy	meki-kan	to eat with someone, join in a meal, esp. of going to a feast
Tagalog	maká-káʔin	to join others at a meal

8013

PMP *ma-ŋaen to eat

WMP
Ilokano	ma-ŋán	to eat
Isneg	ma-ŋān	to eat
Itawis	ma-ŋán	to eat
Bontok	maŋ-an	to eat
	maŋ-an-an	any pot or jar in which rice is usually cooked
Kankanaey	ma-ŋán	to eat; to take one’s meals; to feed
Ifugaw	ma-ŋán	to eat
	ma-ma-ŋán	person who gives to eat (feeds)
Ifugaw (Batad)	ma-ŋan	for someone to engage in eating, especially a scheduled meal (regular meals are eaten in the morning and at night; a noon meal is more casual and irregular); for someone to eat with someone else
Casiguran Dumagat	mə-ŋan	to eat
Ibaloy	me-ŋan	to eat; to bite, cut into (as auger bit cuts into wood)
Pangasinan	ma-ŋan	to eat
Sambal (Botolan)	ma-ŋan	to eat
Kapampangan	ma-ŋan	to eat
Tagalog	ma-ŋáʔin	to eat small things or pieces of things one after another
Hanunóo	ma-ŋáʔun	to eat
Masbatenyo	ma-ŋáʔon	to eat (refers to eating a variety of things)
Agutaynen	pala-ma-ŋan-an	dining room
Mapun	ma-ŋan	to eat something, consume something; to bite into something (as sandpaper into wood)
	ma-ŋan-an	utensils for eating, such as spoons, glasses, plates, etc.
	ma-ŋan ma-ŋan	to have a picnic
Samal	maŋan	eat
Gayō	ma-ŋan	to eat
Simalur	ma-ŋan	to eat; to bite (of a fish taking the bait)
	ma-ŋan ma-ŋan	to eat on and on, to go on eating
Karo Batak	ma-ŋan-i	eat from something; eaten up by animals; consumed by fire
Toba Batak	ma-ŋan	to eat, consume
Old Javanese	u-ma-ŋan	to eat, swallow, devour
	a-ma-ŋan-i	to hurt, wound
Javanese	maŋan	eat [Ngoko speech level]
	ma-ŋan	to eat, to consume
Balinese	ma-ŋan	to eat
Sasak	ma-ŋan	to eat
Banggai	maŋ-kaan	to eat
Mori Bawah	moŋ-kaa	to eat
Padoe	mo-ŋaa	to eat
Bungku	moŋ-kaa	to eat
Bonerate	ma-ŋa	to eat
Note: Also Gaddang, Yogad me-ŋŋan, Lampung me-ŋan ‘to eat’.

12569

POC *maŋan to eat

OC
Arosi	maŋa	bits of food in the crevices of the teeth after eating
	maŋa(-maŋa)	to eat

8014

PPh *maR-kaen to eat

WMP
Agta (Dupaningan)	mag-kan	to eat, especially rice or a meal containing rice
Casiguran Dumagat	məg-kan	to eat casually
Bikol	mag-ka-kán	to eat; to dine on; to devour; to jump (as in checkers)
Romblomanon	mag-kāʔun	to eat
Masbatenyo	mag-káʔon	to eat
Hiligaynon	mag-kaʔún	to eat, to devour
Tausug	mag-kaun	to eat

8015

PAN *pa-kaen to feed

Formosan
Kavalan	pa-kan ~ pa-kann	to feed, to make someone eat
Pazeh	pa-kan	to feed (as a mother feeding her young child)
Amis	pa-kaen	to feed, give food
Thao	pa-kan	to feed (as children or domesticated animals); to serve, as food or drink to a guest or honored person
Puyuma	pa-kan	to feed
Paiwan	pa-kán	to feed
WMP
Itbayaten	i-pa-kan	bait (for catching), refreshment, meal to be served
Ilokano	pa-kán	to feed
	ag-pa-kán	to host a feast
Bontok	pa-kan	to feed, to raise, as an animal
Kankanaey	mai-pa-kán	to be given to eat; woof, weft
	pa-kan-an	woof, weft
Ifugaw	pa-kán	thread shot through the gape which the woman who is weaving made by raising the even (or the uneven) threads
Ifugaw (Batad)	pa-ʔan	a weft thread; transverse strips of certain baskets; to weave a weft thread onto warp threads
Pangasinan	pa-kán	to feed; to serve food
Kapampangan	pa:-pa-kan	feed someone
Tagalog	pa-kaʔín	ration of food
Hanunóo	mag-pa-káʔun	to feed, give food; also, by extension, give (other things)
Romblomanon	pa-kāʔun	food is allowed by someone to be eaten by someone else; an eating event, as at the reception of a baptism or wedding
Masbatenyo	pa-káʔon	feast
Aklanon	pa-káon	to feed
Hiligaynon	gin-pa-káʔun	to feed
Binukid	pa-kaen	to feed (a person or an animal)
Mansaka	pa-kaan	food offered (esp. to some person)
Yakan	pa-ka-kan	to eat into something (as a saw); sink into something (as tires); consume something (as fire)
Narum	pa-han	to feed (as a child)
Kayan	pa-kan	to feed (as chickens)
Kayan (Uma Juman)	pa-kan	to feed (animals); fodder
Malagasy	fá-hana	nourishment, strength; ration; subsistence
Iban	pa-kai	to eat, consume
Malay	pa-kan	fodder; to eat; to feed, of animals; woof, weaving
Simalur	a-ʔan	to feed
Javanese	pa-kan	animal food
OC
Mbula	-pa-kan	to feed someone
Eddystone/Mandegusu	va-γan-i	to eat

8016

PAN *pa-kaen-en to feed, be fed

Formosan
Thao	pa-kan-in	is being fed by someone
WMP
Itbayaten	pa-kan-en	to feed
Ilokano	pa-kan-en	to feed
Agta (Dupaningan)	pa-kan-an	to feed a person or animal
Isneg	pak-kan-án	to feed (animals)
Casiguran Dumagat	pə-kan-ən	to feed
Tagalog	pa-kaʔín-in	to feed someone
Bikol	pa-ka-kan-ón	to feed
Tausug	pa-kaun-un	to feed (as children); cooked rice
Kadazan Dusun	pa-a-kan-on	to cause or allow to be fed
Toba Batak	pa-han-on	domesticated animals

8017

PWMP *pa-ŋaen food

WMP
Bontok	paŋ-an	to feed; to feed on
Kankanaey	mai-pa-ŋán	viand; food; all that is edible and is eaten with rice
Ifugaw (Batad)	pa-ŋan	for someone to feed someone something
Ibaloy	pa-ŋan to	“his meal”, designation for the first day of the aremag/siling funeral celebration, when one pig is butchered
Kalamian Tagbanwa	pa-ŋan	to eat
Agutaynen	ag-pa-ŋan-en	to be eaten
Gayō	pa-ŋan	to be eaten by someone
Karo Batak	pa-ŋān	food, all kinds of food
Toba Batak	pa-pa-ŋan-i	eat a lot
Lampung	pa-ŋan	food to be eaten
Sundanese	pa-ŋan	food
Old Javanese	pa-ŋan	food, eating
	ka-pa-ŋan-an	devoured by; addicted to?
Javanese	pa-ŋan	food, something to eat
Balinese	pa-ŋan	food, things to eat
Sasak	pa-ŋan	cookies made of sticky rice flour; to eat
	kə-pa-ŋan	eclipse
CMP
Geser	ŋga faŋa	to eat

8018

POC *paŋan food; to feed

OC
Nauna	haŋɨn-i	to feed
Baluan	paŋ	to feed
Lou	aŋ	to feed
Penchal	haŋín	to feed
Lenkau	haŋ	to feed
Pak	haŋ	to feed
Loniu	haŋin-i	feed him!
Ere	aŋ-haŋ	to feed
Leipon	heŋen-i	to feed
Ahus	a-heŋ	to feed
Bipi	hak	to feed
Nalik	faŋan	to eat
Duke of York	waŋan	to eat
Bugotu	vaŋa	to eat; vegetable food
	vaa-vaŋa	crops, food
Nggela	vaŋa	food, properly vegetable food; to eat, have a meal
	vaŋa ni tahi	food in the sea; fish, shellfish, etc.
	vaŋa-ga	to bear fruit; fruitful; the contents of anything
	vaŋa-vaŋa	to eat into, of a sore
Kwaio	faŋa	food; eat
Lau	faŋa	to eat, have a meal; a meal, food; to bite, nibble, of fish
	fā-faŋa	to feed
Toqabaqita	faŋa	to eat
	faŋa i ano	eat food directly from the ground (rather than from a leaf, a plate, etc.) because of being in mourning
Rotuman	haŋa	to feed

8019

PWMP *pa-ŋaen-an food (?)

WMP
Isneg	pa-ŋan-án	to feed (human beings)
Ifugaw	pa-ŋan-án	eating place; eating time
Kayan (Uma Juman)	pə-ŋan-an	food (in general), diet
Toba Batak	pa-ŋan-an	plate or anything similar from which a person eats
Old Javanese	pa-ŋan pa-ŋan-an	food
Balinese	pa-ŋan-an	food, things to eat
Totoli	pa-ŋan-an	food
Uma	pa-ŋan-a	betel nut, areca nut

8020

PAN *p<in>a-kaen was fed by someone

Formosan
Kavalan	p<n>a-qan	was fed by someone
Thao	p<in>a-kan	was fed by someone
Puyuma	p<in>a-kan-an	was fed with something
WMP
Cebuano	p<in>a-kaʔun	be fed with something special on a regular basis
Narum	p<an>ahan	was fed by someone
Toba Batak	p<in>a-han	domesticated animals

8021

PAN *Si-kaen instrument used for eating

Formosan
Bunun	is-kaʔun	any instrument used for eating, as chopsticks
Paiwan	si-kán	eating implement; reason for eating

8022

PMP *hi-kaen (??)

WMP

Pangasinan

i-kan-á

ingredients

Note: Also Kavalan ti-qan ‘to eat with (instrumental focus)’.

8023

PAN *ka-kaen-an place where one eats

Formosan
Pazeh	ka-kan-an	dining table
Amis	ka-k<om>aen-an	table, dining area
Bunun (Takituduh)	ka-kaʔun-an	any place for eating, as a table
Paiwan	ka-kan-an	dining room
WMP
Bikol	ka-kan-an	dining room
Mapun	ka-kan-an	the amount that someone can eat
Note: Also Sangir ka-kanəŋ-aŋ ‘eating place, eating trough’. Presumably with ka- -an ‘formative for abstract nouns’, although most reflexes of ka-kaen-an appear to be concrete.

8024

PAN *ka-kaen-en edible things, food

Formosan
Pazeh	ka-kan-en	to eat
Amis	ka-kaen-en	food, things to eat
Thao	ka-kan-in	food; be fed by someone
Bunun (Takituduh)	ka-kaʔun-un	food; anything that is eaten
Paiwan	mere-ka-kan-en	large edible thing (as sweet potato); (metaphorically) penis (“eaten” by vagina)
WMP
Yami	ka-kan-en	food
Itbayaten	ka-kan-en	edible, edible thing
Pangasinan	ka-kan-en	things to eat
Kapampangan	ka-kan-an	food
Tagalog	ka-kaʔin-ín	sweets; tidbits; dainties
Bikol	ka-kán-on	food, victuals
	ka-kan-ón	to corrode; to be eaten away
Banggai	ko-koon-on	food, meal

8025

PAN *k<in>aen was eaten; what was eaten

Formosan
Pazeh	k<in>an saw	was eaten by a person (someone)
Thao	k<in>an suma	was eaten by someone
WMP
Itbayaten	ch<in>an	ate, eaten; eaten part; the one eaten, something eaten
	ch<in>an-an ~	leavings at the table, leftover food
Isneg	kinnān	past tense of kanán, to eat
Ibaloy	k<in>an	was eaten by someone
Romblomanon	(nag)-k<in>āʔun	was eaten
Aklanon	k<in>áon	was eaten by someone
	pa-ŋ<in>áon	to have an appetite, eat well
Cebuano	k<in>áʔun	eaten, consumed
	k<in>áʔun sa gabas	sawdust (what was eaten by the saw)
Mapun	k<in>a-kan	general term for food or cooked rice
Yakan	k<in>a-kan	food; staple food (usually thought of as rice)
Lun Dayeh	k<in>an	was eaten by someone
Kelabit	k<in>an	was eaten by someone
Narum	h<in>an	was eaten by someone
Ngaju Dayak	k<in>an	be eaten by someone
Malagasy	mi-h<ín>ana	to eat, to consume, to spend
Sangir	k<in>aəŋ	prey
Banggai	k<in>aan	was eaten by someone; food

11967

PMP *k<in>aen what is eaten; food (cooked rice)

WMP
Mori Atas	kinaʔa	cooked rice

8026

POC *k<in>an food; meat

OC
Ere	kina-n	meat; its meat
Mussau	inana	food
Roviana	g<in>ani	food
Tongan	kina	meat or fish portion of a baked or roasted meal
Note: Roviana g<in>ani is assumed to be a reformation made by infixing the reflex of POc *kani.

8027

PAN *k<um>aen to eat

Formosan
Taokas	um-an	to eat
Basai	k<um>an	to eat
Kavalan	q<m>an ~ q<m>ann	to eat
Sakizaya	mu-kan ^<M	to eat
Amis	k<om>aen	to eat
Favorlang/Babuza	man	to eat; meal
Thao	k<m>an	to eat food, to chew betel nut, to smoke tobacco
Bunun (Takituduh)	maʔun	to eat
	ma-maʔun	to keep on eating
Tsou	bonə	to eat
Kanakanabu	k<um>a-kaənə	to eat
Paiwan	k<m>an	to eat
WMP
Yami	k<om>an	to eat
Itbayaten	k<om>an	to eat, to dine
Bontok	k<umm>an	to eat
Ifugaw	k<um>án	to eat
Tagalog	k<um>áʔin	to eat
Hanunóo	k<um>áʔun	to eat
Klata	kommaa	to eat
Tausug	k<um>aun	to eat
Lun Dayeh	k<um>an	to eat, have a meal
Kelabit	k<um>an	to eat
	pə-ŋ<um>an	to eat
Berawan (Long Teru)	kuman	to eat
Narum	h<um>an	to eat
Kenyah (Long Anap)	pə-ŋ<um>an	food (in general)
Kayan	k<um>an	to have a meal; to eat
Kayan (Uma Juman)	k<um>an	to eat
	pə-ŋ<um>an	food (in general), diet
Bukat	kuman	to eat
Lahanan	kuman	to eat
Ngaju Dayak	h<um>an	to eat (of people or animals)
	ma-ŋ<um>an	to eat (animals), to corrode, to spread, as an abscess
	pa-ŋ<um>an	what always spreads, “eats” up a wider area
Taboyan	k<um>an	to eat
Ma'anyan	k<um>an	to eat
Malagasy	h<óm>ana	to eat, to consume a meal; to expend; to bite, as a saw, etc.
Sangir	k<um>aəŋ	to eat
Note: Also Kenyah (Long Anap) uman ‘to eat’ (presumably a back-formation from pə-ŋ<um>an ‘food (in general), where the base could potentially begin with k or zero.

8028

PMP *kaen-a eat it (imper.)

WMP
Itbayaten	kan-a	eat
Aklanon	kanʔ-a ^<M	eat it! (imper.)
Waray-Waray	kaon-a	to eat up
Maranao	kan-a	eat it
Tiruray	kan-a	a guest or visitor; to serve food to visitors
CMP
Wetan	an-a	to eat

8030

PAN *kaen-an place where one eats; food

Formosan
Kavalan	qann-an	be eaten; food
Bunun	kaun-an	pipe (for smoking)
Puyuma	a-kan-an	food
Paiwan	kan-an	place where one eats
WMP
Itbayaten	kan-an	eating place
Isneg	kan-án	to eat; food contained in the stomach
Tagalog	káʔín-an	eating together (whether persons or animals)
Romblomanon	kaʔūn-an	place from which something is eaten (as a plate); an eating place (any area where one eats – a table, the floor, a beach)
Masbatenyo	kaʔún-an	to eat with (someone)
	kaʔun-án	dining room
Cebuano	kanʔ-an-an ^<M	eat somewhere regularly; place to eat (eating table, dining room, restaurant)
Maranao	kan-an	utensil, dish, plate
Kenyah (Long Wat)	kanan	eating utensils (taken collectively)
Bintulu	kanan	jar

12640

POC *kanan food

OC
Pak	kan	food
Loniu	kan	food
Titan	kanaŋ-kan	to eat
Leipon	kan	food
Levei	kan-a	food
Seimat	an	food
Wuvulu	ana-na	food
Mendak	anən	eating
	e anən	food
Nggela	gana	food

8031

PAN *k<in>aen-an what was eaten; food

Formosan
Kavalan	q<n>ann-an	something eaten
Thao	k<in>an-an	was eaten by someone; what was eaten by someone

8032

PAN *kaen-ay will eat

Formosan
Pazeh	ka-kan-ay	will eat, shall eat
Puyuma	əkan-ay	to eat (locative focus)

8033

PAN *kaen-en be eaten by someone; cooked rice

Formosan
Thao	kan-in	be eaten by someone; food
Bunun	kaun-un	eaten; food
Bunun (Takituduh)	kaʔun-un	to be eaten by someone
Paiwan	kan-en	food
WMP
Yami	kan-en	be eaten
Itbayaten	kan-en	something to eat, food
Ilokano	kan-én	food; to eat something
	kan-kan-en	sweets (rice cakes)
Agta (Dupaningan)	kan-an	food, especially rice
Itawis	kan-án	food
Bontok	kan-ən	to eat
Kankanaey	kan-kan-én	bread; cake; bonbon; sweetmeat; pastry (probably < Ilokano)
Casiguran Dumagat	kan-ən	to eat something; food, cooked rice
Pangasinan	kán-en	food
Tagalog	kaʔín-in	to eat
Hanunóo	kánʔ-un ^<M	be eaten by someone
Romblomanon	kaʔún-un	will be eaten by someone; something to eat
	kanʔ-un ^<M	cooked rice
Aklanon	kán-on	rice; staple food
Hiligaynon	kaʔun-un	to eat, to devour
Cebuano	kanʔ-un ^<M	cooked rice or corn
Binukid	kaen-en	cooked rice, corn grits; any staple food eaten with viand
Mansaka	kan-un	food; cooked rice
Kalagan	kan-ɨn	(cooked) rice
Mapun	ka-kan-un	to eat something
Tausug	kaun-un	be eaten by someone
Kadazan Dusun	a-kan-on	(to be) eaten, destroyed (as if by eating)
Tombonuwo	o-kan-on	cooked rice
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kan-ən	cooked rice
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kan-ən	cooked rice
Melanau (Mukah)	uaʔ ka-nən	any special food, as one’s favorite food
Malagasy	hán-ina	food, victuals, viands, nourishment; to be eaten, to be devoured, to be consumed
	mi-h<in>an kán-ina	to eat
Palauan	kall	food

8034

PSHWNG *kanon₁ to eat, consume

SHWNG
Waropen	ano	to eat, consume

8035

POC *kanon₂ flesh; kernel

OC
Numbami	ano	fruit; meat; essence
Tongan	kano	flesh or substance: generally used instead of ka-kano when –‘i (of) is attached, as in kano ‘i puaka, pig’s flesh, pork, and in compound expressions such as kano lelei, having good flesh or (of a sermon, etc.) meaty
	ka-kano	flesh; lean (as opposed to ngako, fat); muscle; contents or substance
	kanon-i	to increase or add to (object something already heavy or painful or otherwise unpleasant); to aggravate
Niue	kano	grain, seed
	ka-kano	kernel, flesh, meaning, contents
	kanon-ia	full, filled
Futunan	kano	central part (of a road, an army)
	kano ’i mata	pupil of the eye
Samoan	ʔa-ʔano	flesh; kernel, meat; gist, essence, heart (of the matter); fleshy; meaty, substantial (as a sermon); of words, speech, etc., be full of substance
Nukuoro	gano	flesh of, meat of
Rennellese	kano	kernel, as of a nut; flesh, as of a coconut, fish, or bivalve; genitalia, labia
	kano soni	vagina
	kano uge	penis
	ka-kano	core of wood; to have a core
Maori	kano	seed
	kā-kano	seed, kernel, pip

8036

PAN *kaen-i eat it!

Formosan
Kavalan	qann-i	eat (imper.)
Pazeh	kan-i	eat (imper.)
	ta-kan-i	let’s eat!
Bunun	kaun-i	to eat (imper.)
Paiwan	kan-i	let’s eat!
WMP
Kayan	kan-i	eaten; to eat
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kan-i	be eaten

8037

POC *kani to eat

OC
Pak	kan	food
Loniu	kan	food
Titan	kanaŋ-kan	to eat
Leipon	kan	food (keykay < Tok Pisin kaikai used by younger speakers)
Likum	ya-ʔan	to eat
Seimat	an	food
Yapese	kaay	to eat
Tanga	en	to eat; feast
Tolai	äni	to eat
Arop	a-kani	to eat
Amara	-ken	eat
Lusi	-ani	to eat
Kove	ani	to eat
Bebeli	kɛn	to eat
Lakalai	ali	to eat, to chew
Mengen	kani	to eat
Kairiru	-ʔan-	to eat
Manam	kaŋ	to eat, to consume
Mbula	-kan	eat, consume, use up, burn up
Numbami	ani	to eat
Ubir	i-ani-n	to eat
Suau	ʔai-ʔai	to eat
Magori	ani	to eat
Hula	ani	to eat
Pokau	ani	to eat
Molima	ʔai	to eat
Saliba	kai	to eat
Papapana	ani	to eat
Teop	ani	to eat
Torau	ani-ani	to eat
Takuu	kai	to eat
Eddystone/Mandegusu	γani	to eat; to bite, as a fish; food
Bugotu	gani	to eat up, consume
Nggela	gani	to eat; to burn up, consume; burnt, eaten; scraps of food
Ghari	ha-hani	to eat
Chuukese	áni-	to eat (of cooked starchy food, bread, any leafy vegetable, cooked or uncooked, cooked fish, copra; but not uncooked bananas or other fruit, uncooked fish, or cooked or uncooked meat)
Mota	gan	to eat food; to eat, as an ulcer or sore; to spread, as fire
Cape Cumberland	hani	to eat
Malmariv	ani-ani	food
Lametin	ani-ani	food
Amblong	ani-an	to eat
Central Maewo	γani	to eat
Northeast Ambae	ka-kani	to eat
Lingarak	-kan	to eat
Avava	kan	to eat
Axamb	kan	to eat
Namakir	-kan	to eat
Ura	n-eni	to eat
Lenakel	-kən	to eat
Iaai	han	to eat; meal
Dehu	xen	to eat
Nengone	kān	to eat (in general), to eat vegetable food
Wayan	kani	(of animals) to eat, consume food; (of the sea, insects) erode, eat away at something, bore holes; use up someone’s resources, cost someone a lot
Tongan	kai	to eat; (of fish) to bite (at the bait); (in games) to score, make a score
Niue	kai	to eat
	kai-aŋa	a meal, feast
Futunan	kai	to eat (transitive or intransitive)
Samoan	ʔai	to eat; bite, grip; food; score, goal, point, run
Tuvaluan	kai	to eat; score in a game
	mea kai	food
Kapingamarangi	gai	to eat
Nukuoro	gai	eat; food
Rennellese	kai	to eat, be eaten; to erode, as a sore; to smoke, as tobacco; food (rare)
	haka-kai	to enlarge, as a hole in the ear
Anuta	kai	to eat; generic name for food crops
	kai tae	eat shit! (curse)
Rarotongan	kai	to eat
Maori	kai	consume, eat; drink any liquid other than water, for which inu is used; bite; food
Hawaiian	ʔai	food or food plant, especially vegetable food as distinguished from iʔa, meat or fleshy food; often ʔai refers specifically to poi; to eat, destroy of consume, as by fire, erode; to taste, bite, take a hook, grasp, hold on to; edible; ; score, points in a game; stake, wager
	ho-ʔai	to feed, give food to

8038

POC *kani-a eat it

OC
Motu	ani-a	to eat something
Roviana	gani-a	to eat
Nggela	gani-a	edible
Toqabaqita	ʔani-a	to eat
'Āre'āre	ani-a	to eat; to wear out, to burn
Gilbertese	kani-a	to eat, to devour, to consume; to gnaw; to deteriorate
Rotuman	ʔani-a	to eat
Fijian	kani-a	to eat (something specified)
Note: Also Gilbertese kaŋ ‘to eat, to consume’, Pohnpeian, Mokilese, Kosraean kaŋ ‘to eat’, Woleaian gaŋ-i ‘eat it’.

8039

PMP *kaen kaen (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Hanunóo	kaʔun-káʔun	eat and eat!
Cebuano	káʔun-káʔun	eat light snacks between meals
SHWNG
Numfor	ān-ān	to eat

8040

POC *kani kani to eat, keep on eating

OC
Lakalai	ali-ali	to eat, to chew
Gapapaiwa	kani-kani	be eating
Motu	ani-ani	food; to eat (intr.)
Molima	ʔai-ʔai	to eat
Roviana	gani-gani	to eat
Eddystone/Mandegusu	γani-γani	to keep on eating, feast
Cape Cumberland	ʔani-ʔani	to eat
North Malo	xan-xan	to eat
Wayan	kani-kani	(of land, body) be wasting away, be wasted, eaten away, eroded; keep eating, eat (frequently)

Note: This base is exceptionally rich in affix potential. At the same time it has caused considerable confusion to some comparativists. Dempwolff (1938) posited *ka ‘to eat’, *ka-en ‘what is to be eaten, food, nourishment’, on the assumption that *kaen contained a base *ka plus the patient suffix *-en. However, this is a misanalysis, as the comparative evidence supports *kaen ‘to eat’ and *kaen-en ‘be eaten by someone; what is to be eaten, food, nourishment’. Wolff (2010:855-856), on the other hand, posits *kan ‘eat’, but has no explanation for the second vowel (or for vowel length) in widely separated languages such as Bunun, Amis, Tagalog, Hanunóo, various Bisayan and Manobo languages, Karo Batak, Sangir, Tondano, Mongondow, Totoli, Boano, Banggai and Proto-Bungku-Tolaki. Moreover, following a prior suggestion by Dahl he proposes *isekan ‘fish’ as a morphological derivative, although the comparative evidence points clearly to PAn *Sikan, with last-syllable *a, not *e (cp. Bunun iskan ‘fish’, vs. kaʔun ‘eat’).

The simplest explanation for these various confusions is that the base *kaen frequently contracted to a monosyllable because schwa next to another vowel is particularly weak, and tends to be absorbed. This is especially the case with affixed forms, and an examination of almost any dictionary of a contemporary language shows that reflexes of the base *kaen rarely occur unaffixed, and that when they do they are more likely to retain the medial vowel sequence, as with Aklanon káon ‘to eat’, but kán-on ‘rice, staple food’ (not **káon-on). Where *kaen has contracted to a monosyllable several languages independently have restored the favored disyllabism of content words through epenthesis, as in Puyuma əkan, Yami (a)kan, Bontok ek-ekan, KADAD akan, or Maloh aŋkan ‘eat’ (the latter with subsequent sporadic medial prenasalization).

The rich morphology of this base is ubiquitous in Taiwan, the Philippines, northern Borneo and northern Sulawesi, but contracts radically in languages further to the south, where only paradigmatically dissociated elements remain, as in the Uma Juman dialect of Kayan (Blust 1977:63-64), where kani, kanən, kinan, kuman, makan, pakan, pəŋanan and pəŋuman are no longer anchored to a common base, and where most of the morphology in this fragmented paradigm is fossilized (-ən, -in-, ma-, pa-, pəŋ- and –an are otherwise unknown in the language, and although a reflex of *-um- continues to function as the marker of active voice, its form is –əm-, not –um-). Similarly, for Ngaju Dayak Hardeland (1859:276) cites kuman as a dictionary entry, and notes that “Das Passiv von kuman is unregelmässig, heisst: kinan, gegessen, getrogen werden, (sind essbar).”

31632

*kagkag to dry something in the sun

9784

PPh *kagkag to dry something in the sun [disjunct: *kaRkaR]

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kagkág	to bask in the sun
Casiguran Dumagat	kágkag	to dry in the sun (of rice, meat, clothes, etc.)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kagkag	to dry something in the sun
	peni-ŋagkag	to warm oneself in the sun

31634

*kahir scratch the ground, as a chicken does

9786

PWMP *kahir scratch the ground, as a chicken does [disjunct: *kahiR]

WMP
Binukid	kahil	claw part of chicken feet (used in scratching); for a chicken to scratch, scratch around in something
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kahir	the cleared area on the ground in front of a chicken after he has scratched it clean looking for food
Iban	kair	to scratch, scrape with the foot (as a hen searching for food)
Karo Batak	kair-kair	a rake
	ŋ-kair-i	to rake

26612

*kahiR scratch the ground, as a chicken does

3070

PWMP *kahiR scratch the ground, as a chicken does [disjunct: *kahir]

WMP
Tagalog	káhig	scratching loose soil (as fowls do); inciting two roosters to fight but holding them back by the tail, thus causing them to scratch the soil
Hanunóo	kayíg	scratching of the ground, as by chickens
Hiligaynon	káhig	to rake, to shovel
Iban	kair	scratch, scrape (with the foot)
Karo Batak	kair-kair	rake
Sasak	kaeh	scratch up the ground (as a chicken)

Note: Also Proto-Sangiric *kaeiR ‘to scratch; sweep’. Sasak normally reflects *R as /r/, but shows *R > -/h/ in a few other forms, as *kuluR > kuluh ‘breadfruit’, or *muRmuR > kə-mumur ~ kə-mumuh ‘to gargle’. Zorc (1971) posits PPh *kahiR ‘scratch’.

26613

*kahiw haŋin haŋin type of lichen

3071

PWMP *kahiw haŋin haŋin type of lichen

WMP
Javanese	kayu aŋin-aŋin	kind of bluish-white lichen that grows on tree trunks: Usnea barbata; it is sometimes used as a medicine (van der Veen 1940)
Tae'	aŋin-aŋin	kind of bluish-white lichen that grows on tree trunks: Usnea barbata; it is sometimes used as a medicine
Makassarese	kayu aŋin	a tree, Casuarina spp.

31947

*kahug to mix, mingle

10164

PWMP *kahug to mix, mingle

WMP
Cebuano	kahúg ~ káhug	to mix moist and dry ingredients together; to stir something thick
Sangir	məʔ-kaugəʔ	to mix together
	mə-ŋaugəʔ	to mix (as sand with lime in making mortar)
Mongondow	kaug	to stir, mix together; also to disturb

29904

(Formosan only)

*kahuS scoop up

6571

PAN *kahuS scoop up

Formosan
Kavalan	kaus	scoop
	sa-kaus-an	a tool used to scoop up earth or grass
Saisiyat	kahœs	scooping out
Thao	kaush	scoop up, ladle up
	ka-kaush	ladle for dipping up water
Paiwan	kaus	scoop-net (for fishing or catching butterflies)

6572

PAN *k<um>ahuS scoop up

Formosan
Kavalan	k<m>aus	to scoop up earth, grass
Saisiyat	k<om>ahœs	scoop out
Thao	k<m>aush	scoop up, ladle up

Note: Also Pazeh mu-haus ‘to scoop up, as noodles’. Li (1978) gives only the Actor Voice form for Saisiyat, and the base cited here is extracted without the benefit of direct attestation. This word shows -s for expected -ʃ, but seems clearly to be related, and provides evidence for *h, which in general can be obtained only from reflexes in Saisiyat, Pazeh, or Amis.

33955

*kahut to take in one’s hand; handful

12794

PAN *kahut to take in one’s hand; handful

Formosan
Amis	kahot	to take in one’s hand (as rice when eating); a handful

12795

PMP *kaut to take in one’s hand; handful

WMP
Ilokano	k<um>aút	to take the contents out of an empty opening
	kaut-en	to stick in one’s hand in order to take out what is inside, draw from a hole or empty place
Bontok	kaut-ə́n	to move a dry substance with the hands, as soil
	k<um>áut	to move a wet substance, as mud, by digging into it with the fingers
Ibaloy	kaot-en	to insert one’s hand(s) into a hold to get something (as honey from a cleft, midwife delivering a breech)

32009

*kai (human) member of a category

10236

POC *kai (human) member of a category

OC
Bola	ka-kai	boss
Medebur	kai-n	boy
	kai-dik-waun	young man (waun = ‘new, young’)
Lau	ʔai	a person, individual; a woman; thing; kind, sort; another, different
	ʔai buri	junior; second wife (buri = ‘after, behind’)
	ʔai manu	a flock of birds
	ʔai nao	senior; first wife
	ta ʔai	anyone
Toqabaqita	ʔai	used to refer to collectivities of various kinds
	ʔai ni bulisi	police unit
	ʔai ni fasia	the founding family, group in a given place
	ʔai ni gavman	government (as a collective body)
	ʔai ni mae	saga-like song which is the history of a family line
	ʔai ni niu	coconut grove
Arosi	ai	a native of, person of
	ai (ni) Wango	a native of Wango
Proto-North-Central Vanuatu	*kai-masi	sorceror (cf. masi-ŋa ‘love magic’)
Fijian	kai	a male inhabitant or native of a place; it is never used alone and does not refer to women
	kai ðolo	inhabitant of the mountainous interior of Viti Levu
	kai mua	a sailor
	kai Peritania	a Britisher
	kai wai	inhabitant of the shore
Tongan	ka-kai	people (collectively); to be peopled, inhabited, occupied; to be attended by people, to be more or less full of people
Futunan	ka-kai	people, inhabitants
Samoan	ʔa-ʔai	village, town
Tuamotuan	ka-kai	body, group of blood relatives

Note: Also Wayan koi ‘person of a place or category specified by the following noun’, koi mua ‘sailor, seaman’, koi viti ‘inhabitant of Fiji, Fijian’, koi wai ‘inhabitant of the coast or island, islander, coastal dweller’. A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (1985), and more recently by Ross and Osmond (2016:49-50). Although this term evidently was restricted to human referents in POc, several languages of the Southeast Solomons have extended it to include animals (Lau Ɂai manu), plants (Toqabaqita Ɂai ni niu), or even inanimate referents (Toqabaqita Ɂai ni mae, although in this case there is a connection with humans).

31635

*kaija when? (in the past)

9787

PAN *kaija when? (in the past) [doublet: *ijan 'when']

Formosan
Thao	kaiza	when? or else
Rukai	kəiga	when? (past; Ferrell 1971)

9788

POC *ka-ica when?

OC
Wuvulu	aiga	when?

Note: Also Paiwan nu-ŋida ‘when? (future)’, ta-ŋida ‘when? (past)’.

31648

*kain woman’s skirt; cloth used for clothing

9804

PWMP *kain woman’s skirt; cloth used for clothing

WMP
Ilokano	káin	long skirt
	naka-káin	wearing a long skirt
Kankanaey	k<in>áin	a kind of tapis (apron, sarong), black with elaboratered and yellow designs
Casiguran Dumagat	kεn	woman’s wrap-around skirt
Ibaloy	kain	traditional wraparound skirt
Iban	kain	cloth, skirt (esp. short skirt worn by women); kinds of cloth
Malay	kain	woven fabric; cloth; untailored garment; (specifically) the Malay sarong; cloth of any material

26615

*kak sound of a cackle, loud laugh, etc.

3073

PAN *kak sound of a cackle, loud laugh, etc.

Formosan
Kavalan	qaq	crow
WMP
Ibatan	kak	a crow
	may-kakak	to caw like a crow
Kankanaey	kak	shriek, screech, scream, as chickens do when startled
Iban	kak	a crow
Malay	kak	sound of laughter
CMP
Manggarai	kak	to bark, yelp, of a dog
OC
Sa'a	kaa	clear the throat
Tongan	kā	to hawk, clear the throat forcibly and noisily

Note: Also Tombonuwo kaak ‘kind of crow’. This appears to be the bare root *-kak₁ ‘cackle, laugh loudly’, found as the last syllable in a number of CVCVC forms.

30195

*kaka₁ flaky skin disease

7022

POC *kaka₁ flaky skin disease

OC
Tolai	kaka	mange
Roviana	kaka	skin disease (Leucoderma) which causes white patches on hands and feet

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31601

*kaka₂ elder sibling

9742

PAN *kaka₂ elder sibling

Formosan
Kavalan	qaqa	elder sibling (reference)
	nan-qaqa	to be siblings (in case of two males or one male and one female)
	qa-qaqa	the eldest sibling
Amis	kaka	older sibling (brother or sister); one more advanced than Ego; in a superior position
	mali-kaka	brothers and sisters belonging to each other
Rukai (Budai)	káka	elder sibling (address)
Rukai (Tona)	káka	elder sibling (address)
Proto-Rukai	*kaka	elder sibling (address)
Paiwan	kaka	sibling, first cousin; term of address for siblings or cousins of either sex (or for any young man of Ego’s generation, whether kin or not)
Paiwan (Western)	ku-kaka	my younger siblings (reference)
	ti-kaka	my older siblings (reference)

9743

PMP *kaka₂ elder sibling of the same sex

WMP
Yami	kaka	older brother or sister
Ivatan	kaka	older sibling
Ilokano	káka	elder sibling
	ag-káka	two siblings together
Atta (Pamplona)	kaká	older sibling or cousin
Itawis	kaká	older sibling
Kapampangan	káka-Ɂ	older brother
Tagalog	kaká-Ɂ	elder sibling or cousin
Hanunóo	káka-Ɂ	older sibling (both nominative and vocative)
Agutaynen	kaka	older sister
Maranao	kaka	elder
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kake-y	older or oldest sibling; the first wife of a man who has more than one
Manobo (Sarangani)	kaka-y	older sibling
Bisaya (Limbang)	kako	elder sibling
Ngaju Dayak	kaka	elder sibling of the same sex
Iban	kaka	elder sister
Maloh	kaka-Ɂ	elder sibling
Malay	kaka-k	elder sister; (sometimes) elder brother
Karo Batak	kaka	older brother or sister, older clansman
Toba Batak	haha	elder sibling of the same sex; older brother’s wife (man speaking), older sister’s husband (woman speaking)
	si-haha-an	the oldest brother or sister
	hahá-ŋ	elder parallel sibling (vocative)
Minangkabau	kaka-Ɂ	older sister (in some places also older brother); term of address used with the wife of an older brother or for women who the speaker regards as older than himself
Rejang	kako-Ɂ	older brother or sister (actual or classificatory)
Enggano	ʔaʔa	elder sister, elder brother
Old Javanese	kaka	elder brother or sister; also used in addressing somewhat older persons, and for the husband (between man and wife)
	a-kaka	toward an elder brother
Javanese	kaka	older brother
	kaka-ŋ	older brother; husband
	tə-kaka	older than (of siblings)
Proto-Sangiric	*kaka-Ɂ	older sibling
Sangir	kaka-Ɂ	older brother or sister, used to call an older brother or sister, and as a term of respect for older people with whom one does not wish to use a personal name
Proto-Minahasan	*kaka-Ɂ	elder sibling
Bare'e	tu-kaka	older brother or sister, older cousin
Tae'	kaka-Ɂ	older brother or sister (term of address)
Mori Atas	kaka	elder sibling
Proto-South Sulawesi	*kaka	older brother
Mandar	kaka	older sibling
Makassarese	kaka-Ɂ	older brother or sister; sometimes used by a woman as a term of address to her husband
CMP
Adonara	kaka	elder sibling (same sex?; Lebar 1972:93)
Kodi	ghagha	elder parallel sibling
Dhao/Ndao	aʔa	elder sibling
Kisar	kaka	elder brother, male first cousin (man speaking; Lebar 1972:111)
East Damar	aʔa	elder sibling
Manipa	haha	elder brother
Buruese	kaka	sister-in-law (brother’s wife or husband’s sister)
Kayeli	kaka-n	elder sibling or cousin (possibly same sex)
OC
Manam	kaka	elder brother
Motu	kaka-na	elder brother of a male; elder sister of a female
Pokau	aʔa	elder brother
Kokota	kaka	elder sibling
Bugotu	kaka	elder brother or sister (vocative)

9744

PPh *kaka-en (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Yami	kaka-en	to call someone an older brother or sister
Ilokano	kaká-en	to be the elder of the two

Note: Also Proto-Rukai *taka-taka ‘elder sibling (reference)’. In some parts of the Pacific this word has evidently been borrowed into Papuan languages, where it has been better preserved than in the sources from which is probably came, as with Bilua (Vella Lavella, Solomons) kaka ‘elder brother’ (Tryon and Hackman 1983:227).

31809

*kaka₃ fibrous integument at the base of coconut fronds

9999

POC *kaka₃ fibrous integument at the base of coconut fronds

OC
Patpatar	kaka	new coconut frond that has not opened yet
Efate (North)	kak	coconut mat, mesh formed by the coconut palm, used for straining liquids
Efate (South)	kaka	coconut mesh
Tongan	kaka	fibrous integument at the top of coconut palms
Niue	(lau)kaka	the fibrous wrapping round the base of a young coconut frond
Samoan	ʔaʔa	coarse fibrous material found at the base of coconut leaves and used for strainers, etc.
Tuvaluan	kaka	fiber from coconut trunk
Nukuoro	gaga	fibrous sheathing (at the base of the petiole sheath of the flower) of the coconut tree
Rarotongan	kaka	the textile-like stipule at the base of the coconut leaf or frond, which was formerly used as a coarse kind of clothing; it was also used for straining expressed oil, in the preparation of arrowroot, and as a wrapper for fish nets and other articles of value
Maori	kaka	fiber, single hair; stalk
	kā-kaka	stem of the fern Pteridium aquilinium var. esculentum
Hawaiian	ʔa-ʔaʔa	coconut cloth, vascular bundles in taro corm, chaff; fibrous

Note: Also Hawaiian a-ɁaɁa ‘network of veins’. A slightly different version of this comparison was first proposed by Ross and Evans (2008).

29903

(Formosan only)

*kakaCu spider

6570

PAN *kakaCu spider

Formosan
Pazeh	kakasu	spider
Bunun	kakatu	spider

Note: Also Thao, Tsou kakatu ‘spider’, both of which appear to be loanwords from Bunun.

26614

*kakak caw, cackle

8921

PAN *kakak caw, cackle

Formosan
Pazeh	kakak	a crow
Puyuma	kakak	quack of the duck and honk of the goose
	k<əm>akak	to quack

3072

PMP *kakakₐ to cackle

WMP
Ilokano	kákak	the uniform cry of the hen, when restless, looking for a nest, etc.
Bontok	kákak	to cackle, of a hen after laying an egg
Kankanaey	kákak	chatter, babble, as hens do
Tagalog	kakak	cackling, quacking (of hens, ducks, etc.)
Cebuano	kákak	cackle
Maranao	kakak	gobble, cackle
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kakak	cackle
Mansaka	kakak	to cackle (as hen)
Tausug	kakak	the quack of a duck; a loud, coarse, burst of laughter
	mag-kakak	to quack like a duck; to laugh boisterously
Malay	meŋ-akak (< kakak)	to quack, of a duck
	pe-kakak	kingfisher (from its cry)
Malay (Kedah)	kaʔkak	cackling laughter
Toba Batak	mar-hahak	to laugh loudly
Nias	mo-kaka-kaka	to laugh loudly
Javanese	kakak	laugh uproariously
Sasak	kakak	boisterous laughter
CMP
Manggarai	kakak	guffaw
Sika	kakak	cackling of a hen at night
OC
Pohnpeian	wah-kahk	call or cackle loudly, of a hen

Note: Also Amis kaɁkaɁ ‘to roar with laughter’. With root *-kak₁ ‘cackle, laugh loudly’.

31636

*kakaŋ bridle, as for a horse

9789

PWMP *kakaŋ bridle, as for a horse

WMP
Mansaka	kakaŋ	bridle for a horse
Mapun	kakkaŋ	a bit (used in a horse’s mouth)
Kadazan Dusun	kakaŋ	bridle, halter, reins (as for a horse)
Nias	kaka	bridle, harness (for horse)

Note: The meaning of this term is problematic, as it is not consistent with what can confidently be inferred about PWMP culture. However, this term has a wide and scattered distribution which cannot easily be accounted for by a borrowing hypothesis. Presumably it had a somewhat different meaning in PWMP and shifted to the only meaning attested here sometime after the introduction of the horse, possibly at the time of first Indianization, roughly 2,000 years ago.

31639

*kakap kind of large, edible marine fish

9793

PWMP *kakap₁ kind of large, edible marine fish

WMP
Ilokano	kákap	kind of edible marine fish
Tombonuwo	kakap	type of scaly fish
Malay	ikan kakap	a large fish (‘cockup’ of India; Palmer of Queensland; Dutch kaalkop, Lates spp.)
Old Javanese	kakap	a large (predatory) fish, Lates calcarifer (“cockup”)

Note: The similarity of this word to the Dutch name kaalkop (‘bald head’) raises questions about whether it is native in the languages from which it is cited here. However, since it is found in Old Javanese, which had ceased to exist before Dutch contact at the beginning of the 17th century, and since it is native to island Southeast Asia, the simplest explanation is that the native term was borrowed into European languages rather than the reverse. In English this became the unanalyzable ‘cockup’, but in Dutch it evidently underwent a folk etymology that provided it with a false morphological transparency.

26692

*kakaq split

3152

PMP *kakaq split

WMP
Cebuano	kakaʔ	children's word for female genitalia
Maranao	kakaʔ	tear, torn, separate; have a gaping wound
Kiput	akaːʔ	spread something (as tweezers) apart
Bare'e	kaka	with interstices, with lacunae
CMP
Kei	kaka	separate, divide, split
OC
Sa'a	kaka	torn, split
Arosi	kaka	torn, split

Note: Also Javanese rekah ‘cracked’. With root *-kaq₂ ‘split’.

31848

*kakas(-i) to split

10046

POC *kakas(-i) to split

OC
Duke of York	kai	to scrape, scratch, chop up food, esp. taro and coconut
Lau	kakas-i	to split open
	kasi	to adze, chop; to knock a nut with a stone on another stone
Sa'a	kaka	to be torn, to be split
	kaka-si	to tear, to split
Arosi	kaka	to split
	kaka-si	to split something

Note: A somewhat more extended version of this comparison was first proposed by Ross, Clark and Osmond (1998:261).

31921

*kakawa₁ spider

10136

PWMP *kakawa₁ spider [doublet: *kalawaq, *lawaq]

WMP
Ifugaw	kakáwa	spider
Ibaloy	kakawa	spider
Balinese	kakawa	spider
	kakawa hembuŋ	giant spider

Note: Also Bontok kawá ‘spider’, Ifugaw kaw-káwa ‘spider; belongs to the weaving terminology, to be distinguished from kakáwa, which is the current word for spider.

31961

*kakawa₂ goby, blenny

10185

POC *kakawa₂ goby, blenny

OC
Arosi	ʔaʔawa	a fish, blenny sp.
Bauro	gagawa	a fish, blenny sp.
Anejom	ne-koa	blenny: Ecsenius sp.
Hawaiian	ʔaʔawa	wrasse: Bodianus bilunulatus

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison with several phonologically irregular forms was proposed by Osmond (2011:99). Possibly a chance resemblance.

31649

*kalába honeycomb

9805

PPh *kalába honeycomb

WMP
Ilokano	kalába	honeycomb
Casiguran Dumagat	kalabe	honeycomb
Ibaloy	kalaba	beehive, ant hill, wasp nest, similar insect colonies
Pangasinan	kálaba	honeycomb; similar nest of insect
Tagalog	kalaba	lower section of a beehive
Cebuano	kalába	honeycomb; to form or build a honeycomb

Note: Also Ibaloy kaleba ‘beehive, ant hill, wasp nest, similar insect colonies’.

30657

*kalabaw rat, mouse

8173

PCEMP *kalabaw rat, mouse [doublet: *balabaw, *labaw]

CMP
Bimanese	karavo	rat, mouse
Donggo	karavo	rat, mouse
Selaru	klah	rat, mouse

8174

POC *kalapo rat, mouse

OC
Fijian	kalavo	a rat

33391

*kaladi taro sp., probably Colocasia antiquorum

12038

PWMP *kaladi taro sp., probably Colocasia antiquorum

WMP
Agutaynen	kaladi	taro root crop; this is a plant, not a vine, and the tuber can grow quite large; they are found in low-lying areas where the water stocks up
Bisaya (Limbang)	kaladi	taro
Iban	kaladi	generic for aroids of Alocasia and Colocasia spp., and yams of Dioscorea spp.
Malay	kəladi	generic for many aroids, esp. Colocasia antiquorum (the Polynesian taro); used medicinally
Balinese	keladi	a root vegetable
Mongondow	koladi	a tuber with very large leaves
Tae'	kaladi	taro, Colocasia antiquorum
Wolio	kaladi	taro, Colocasia antiquorum

Note: Also Hanunóo kaládiɁ ‘a variety of taro; its leaves are white and tough’, Bonggi kəladiɁ ‘taro’.

26616

*kalalaŋ narrow-necked water jar

3074

PWMP *kalalaŋ narrow-necked water jar

WMP
Tagalog	kalalaŋ	narrow-necked water jug
Malay	kelalaŋ	decanter; calabash-like water vessel

31962

*kalamansíq citrus tree with fruit like a lemon

10186

PPh *kalamansíq citrus tree with fruit like a lemon

WMP
Itbayaten	kalamansi	calamondin orange; edible; juice of fruit is used for seasoning and curing throat-ache: Citrus microcarpa Bunge
Ilokano	kalamansí ~ kalamansíŋ	the Philippine lemon, smaller than the daláyap lemon: Citrus mitis
Yogad	kalamánsi	a kind of lemon said to be better tasting than an ordinary lemon
Tagalog	kalamansíʔ	citrus tree bearing small acidic fruit: Aldonisis
Cebuano	kalamánsi ~ kalamánsiʔ	a small citrus tree bearing small, round, acid fruit, orange-colored when ripe, with an easily separable peel: Citrus microcarpa

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.

26617

*kalamata kind of plaitwork

3075

PWMP *kalamata kind of plaitwork

WMP
Maranao	kalamata	weave, woven material
Banggai	kalamata	large basket
Tae'	kalamata	(listed independently and under mata) kind of plaitwork with hexagonal openings

31669

*kalamay sticky confection made of rice and coconut

9826

PWMP *kalamay sticky confection made of rice and coconut

WMP
Ilokano	kalámay	kind of sticky coconut sweet made of rice
Tagalog	kalámay	a sweet conserve made from cornmeal, rice flour or cassava flour, and cooked with coconut milk and sugar
Masbatenyo	kalámay	brown sugar; this is made from sugarcane juice
Aklanon	kaeámay	brown sugar
Hiligaynon	kalámay	refined sugar
Cebuano	kalámay	sugar; brown sugar (as opposed to asúkar); make sugar; become sugar
Malay	kəlamay	a Malay cake

Note: Also Iban kelami ‘cake or pudding made of rice flour and sugar’, Malay gəlamay ‘a Malay cake’.

31750

*kalamuntiŋ kind of plant, unident.

9919

PWMP *kalamuntiŋ kind of plant, unident.

WMP
Ilokano	kalamutiŋ	a plant: Pouteria macrantha (Merr.) Bachni, Sapotaceae
Malay	kələmuntiŋ	rose-myrtle: Rhodomyrtus tomentosa

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance in view of the misalignment of taxonomy. However, the length of this form and perfect phonological agreement are most plausibly attributed to common origin.

33155

*kalantas Philippine cedar tree: Cedrela sp.

11653

PPh *kalantas Philippine cedar tree: Cedrela sp.

WMP
Ilokano	kalantás	Philippine cedar tree: Cedrela sp.
Ayta Abellan	kalantah	kind of tree
Palawano	kalantas	kind of tree

31972

*kalaqabusi a shrub: Acalypha sp.

10196

POC *kalaqabusi a shrub: Acalypha sp.

OC
Kwara'ae	ʔalabusi	a shrub: Acalypha grandis
Tikopia	karāpusi	shrubs, Acalypha hispida and Macaranga spp.
Wayan	karabusi	shrub common in rocky hillside garden areas, with thin oval toothed leaves, and pinkish-green spikes of small flowers: a shrub: Acalypha repandra
Fijian	kalabuci	a plant: Acalypha insulana; also an ornamental plant: Acalypha grandis
Futunan	kalaʔapusi	a shrub: Acalypha grandis

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2008c:238-239), and assigned to POc *ka(r,l)qabusi in view of the unexplained absence of the medial liquid in several otherwise appealing witnesses. Forms such as Tongan kala-kalaɁapusi ‘Acalypha spp.’, with s for expected h, or the disagreement between Fijian l and Wayan r suggest a history of borrowing. In addition, at five syllables this form is suspiciously long, and may be bimorphemic.

26619

*kalasag type of shield

3077

PWMP *kalasag type of shield

WMP
Ilokano	kalásag	shield, buckler; defender; defensive covering
	ag-kalásag	to wear a shield, use a shield
Isneg	kalátag	shield; it is cut out of a block of wood in such a way as to be slightly convex at the outside, with a projecting longitudinal ridge in the middle; it is rectangular in shape, with a point projecting at both ends in the center; in the center of the aforementioned ridge is a knob that corresponds to the handle that is cut out at the concave side, and consists of a bar that runs in the same direction as the ridge
Bontok	kalásag	a wooden shield, used as protection when fighting an enemy
Casiguran Dumagat	kalasag	shield (used in warfare by the Ilonggot people, never by Dumagats); to shield oneself behind a shield
Tagalog	kalásag	emblem, coat-of-arms; shield; a piece of armor carried on the arm to protect the body in battle
	kalaság-an	to provide someone with an emblem, coat-of-arms, or shield
Bikol	kalásag	shield
	kalaság-on	to shield a blow, ward off; to shield someone
Cebuano	kalásag	shield
Binukid	kalasag	a shield
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kelasag	shield
Mansaka	karasag	to shield (as shielding a bolo in a scabbard)
Malay	kelasak	long body-shield of wood or leather with a handle at its center

Note: Probably referred to rectangular shields; cf. *tamiŋ (Blust 1980), which appears to have designated round shields.

26620

*kalasaR floor beam

3078

PWMP *kalasaR floor beam

WMP
Maranao	kalasag-an	purlins
Kayan	kelasah	bamboo flooring of boat or canoe

30887

*kalat thick, heavy rope

8716

PWMP *kalat thick, heavy rope

WMP
Hanunóo	kálat	a tie rope for animals
Aklanon	kaeát	rope (made of abaca fibers)
Maranao	kalat	rope that holds the sail in place
Murut (Timugon)	kalat	rope
Lun Dayeh	kalat	a piece of rope
	kalat sabut	rope made of jute fiber
Kelabit	kalat	rope
Kayan	kalat	a rope made of two or three twisted rattans --- very strong
	ŋalat	pull with a heavy rope
Bintulu	kalat	thick rope used to control the direction of fall when felling a coconut tree

Note: Also Javanese kelat ‘long, heavy rope used to pull trees down; rope for the sail’.

31671

*kalatkat climb up, as a vine

9828

PPh *kalatkat climb up, as a vine

WMP
Ilokano	k<um>alatkát	to climb (said of vines and plants)
	pa-kalatkát	support made for climbing plants
Tagalog	kalatkát	spreading out by climbing or creeping (as vines)
Cebuano	kalatkát	climb up something using the hands and feet; climb to get, bring
Maranao	kalakat	to scale up a wall

26622

*kalaw₁ bird sp.

3080

PAN *kalaw₁ bird sp. [doublet: *alaw]

Formosan
Paiwan	kala-kalaw	bird sp.

8592

PMP *kalaw₁ a bird: the hornbill

WMP
Ilokano	kálaw	kind of hornbill
Isneg	kalláw	hornbill
Tagalog	kálaw	hornbill
Cebuano	kálaw	the hornbill: Buceros hydrocorax
Subanen/Subanun	kalau	hornbill (Churchill 1913)
Mansaka	karaw	hornbill
Kayan	kalau	species of big bird
CMP
Kamarian	ala	hornbill
Alune	alakwe	hornbill

Note: Also Kankanaey koláaw ‘hornbill’, Tboli klaw ‘white-bellied woodpecker: Dryocopus javensis’, Wolio halo ‘hornbill’, Motu galo ‘a crow: Corvus gelerita’, Manam kalo ‘raven’, Dobuan kaokao ‘raven’.

33940

*kalaw₂ eyebrow

12777

PAN *kalaw₂ eyebrow

Formosan
Amis	kalaw	eyebrows
Thao	karaw	eyebrow
Bunun	kaav	forehead

Note: Blust (2003) has Thao qaraw ‘eyebrow’, but this word was recorded only once, and given the difficulty of hearing the q/k distinction before a low vowel I assume that my nonce transcription was an error.

26621

*kalawit hook

3079

PWMP *kalawit hook

WMP
Tagalog	kalawit	hook, drag hook, grapnel
Hanunóo	kalawít	a barbed spear point
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kelawit	hook

Note: Also Kelabit keluit ‘hook’. With root *-wit ‘hook-shaped’.

32010

*kalayu a plant with toxic properties, Erioglossum edule or Lepisanthes rubiginosa

10237

PWMP *kalayu a plant with toxic properties, Erioglossum edule or Lepisanthes rubiginosa

WMP
Tagalog	kalayo	a tree: Lepisantheses rubiginosa
Malay	kəlayu	a tree: Erioglossum edule

Note: Despite the different genus designations, these plants are cited in close proximity in treatises on medicinal and poisonous plants, and presumably had similar uses in traditional pharmacology.

31948

*kal(e)bit touch lightly, nudge; pull trigger

10165

PPh *kal(e)bit touch lightly, nudge; pull trigger

WMP
Ilokano	kalbít	a touch, a nudge
	i-kalbít	to catch one’s attention by touching
	kalbit-én	to nudge, pluck; make plucking motion of fingers to call someone’s attention; touch tip; pull the trigger of a gun
Bontok	kalbít	pull back with one’s finger
Casiguran Dumagat	kalbít	trigger of a gun; to pull a trigger
Ibaloy	kalbit	trigger of a gun and other such devices
Kapampangan	kalbit	pinch, pressure
Tagalog	kalbít	light touch with the finger to draw the attention of someone; plucking of the strings of a musical instrument

10166

PPh *kal(e)bit-en touch lightly, nudge; pull trigger

WMP
Bontok	kalbit-én	to pull back with one’s finger, as the trigger of a gun
Tagalog	kalbit-ín	to touch lightly with the finger; to pluck the strings of a musical instrument

Note: Also Ibaloy kabdit ‘trigger of a gun and other such devices’.

31722

*kal(e)dít to make an incision to draw blood

9889

PPh *kal(e)dít to make an incision to draw blood

WMP
Ilokano	kaldit-én	to bleed (someone); to open an abscess or boil
Bikol	mag-kaldít	to make an incision for the purpose of drawing blood

26623

*kalem dark

3081

PMP *kalem dark

WMP
Singhi Land Dayak	karum	dark
CMP
Tetun	kalan	night

Note: With root *-lem₁ ‘dark’.

26626

*kali canal, ditch

3084

PAN *kali₁ canal, ditch

Formosan
Amis	kali	channels for water in the fields; ditch
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	kari	canal, an artificial small waterway for irrigation
WMP
Ilokano	káli	ditch; dike; drainage
Ifugaw	káli	ditch gutter in the earth
Bikol	kalí	canal, ditch, trench; gutter (in bowling)
	kalí-káli	small ditch or canal; furrow, groove, rut, channel, drain; tread of a tire
	mag-kalí	to leave tread marks in; to leave furrows or grooves in
Masbatenyo	kalí	gully, canal, ditch
	mag-kalí	make a canal, make a drainage ditch
Malagasy	hady	ditch, trench, moat, fosse
Sundanese	kalen	pit, groove, gutter, conduit, ditch
Old Javanese	kali	deep watercourse, river-bed, channel
Balinese	kali	river (in some place names)
CMP
Fordata	kal-kali	pit, quarry; groove

31866

*kali- prefix for words with a sensitive reference to the spirit world (cf. *qali-)

10073

PAN *kali- prefix for words with a sensitive reference to the spirit world (cf. *qali-)

Formosan
Paiwan	kaliduŋuduŋulʸ	butterfly
WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kaliduwa	soul, spirit of a living person
Binukid	kalibaŋbaŋ	butterfly
Iban	kelelaway	butterfly
Karo Batak	kalimantek	jungle leech
	kalisuŋsuŋ	whirlwind
Sasak	kaliotoŋ	male flying ant
Sangir	kaḷisusu	whirlpool, whirlwind; crown of the head where the hair whorls
Banggai	kalitatak	butterfly
Makassarese	kaliwara	ant
SHWNG
Gimán	kalibobo	butterfly

Note: For further details on the analysis and meaning of this affix and its variants see Blust (2001).

29935

*kalia large fish, probably grouper

6615

POC *kalia large fish, probably grouper

OC
Lenkau	keli	large sea fish, grouper
Nali	kaliy	large sea fish, grouper
Titan	kali	large sea fish, grouper
Leipon	keli	large sea fish, grouper
Sori	ariy	large sea fish, grouper or rock cod
Bipi	kali	large sea fish, grouper
Seimat	ali	large grouper, up to six feet in length
Wuvulu	alia	large sea fish, grouper
Arosi	aria	a large species of freshwater fish
Fijian	kalia	species of fish, called ulu rua from the peculiar formation of its forehead

Note: This word almost certainly referred to the grouper, perhaps together with the rock cod, in Proto-Admiralty . Its meaning in POc is less clear. Fijian kalia probably is the name of the double-headed parrotfish, and it is conceivable that Tongan kalia, Samoan ʔalia ‘double canoe’, Rotuman karia ‘k.o. large canoe with outrigger’ is a metaphorical derivative from this fish name. Kwaio alia ‘pike-like large freshwater fish’ and related forms elsewhere in the Southeast Solomons reflect *alia, and are distinct from this.

30492

*kalih a hole in the ground; to dig up, excavate, as tubers

7702

PAN *kalih a hole in the ground; to dig up, excavate, as tubers

Formosan
Proto-Atayalic	*kariʔ	to dig
Pazeh	saa-kari	digging stick
Thao	kari	dig up or out, as tubers
	kari-an	being dug up, of a place
Bunun (Takituduh)	ma-kaih	to dig (Tsuchida 1976)
Siraya	kari	dig
Paiwan	kali	a hole that has been dug
	ma-kali	earth to be dug or disturbed
	k<ar>a-kali	to dig everywhere, dig indiscriminately

7703

PMP *kali₂ a hole in the ground; to dig up, excavate, as tubers

WMP
Yami	ni-key-kali	dug up (as sweet potatoes)
Itbayaten	kali	hole in the ground, pit
	mi-chali	to dig, to excavate, to dig (a pit, hole), to make a hole for planting yams
	kali-en	to dig out, to dig up something from the ground
Ivatan (Isamorong)	kadi	to dig
Ilokano	káli	hole; pit
	ag-káli	to dig
	i-káli	to bury something, inhume
	pag-káli	digging instrument
	kali-en	to dig out, exhume
Agta (Dupaningan)	mag-kali	to dig
Ifugaw	muŋ-káli	to dig
Casiguran Dumagat	kale	to dig up roots (using a bolo to dig with)
Pangasinan	kalí	gold mine
Hanunóo	káli	digging up, as of rootstocks, tubers, etc.
Hiligaynon	mag-káli	to dig up (as sweet potatoes)
Maranao	kali	digging stick; dig
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	káli	a digging stick used for digging sweet potatoes, cassava, etc.
Mansaka	kari	to dig up (as sweet potatoes)
Bukat	ŋali	to dig
Paku	ŋadi	to dig
Malagasy	mi-hadi	to dig, to delve
Iban	kali	dig up or out
Malay	gali	digging; surface mining
	meŋ-gali	to dig up yams
	gali-an	alluvial mine
Karo Batak	ŋ-kali	to dig, dig up
Toba Batak	maŋ-hali	to dig (as a grave), dig up (as yams)
Sundanese	kali	digging up of something
	ŋali-an	to dig up, dig for something; dig or root something up
Sasak	kaliʔ	dig
Tontemboan	kali	gutter, drain; dig out, dig a gutter
Mongondow	mo-kali	to dig, dig up; busy with digging
	k<in>ali-an	place that is dug up
Tae'	kali	dig
	pe-kali	digging stick
Muna	seli	to dig, dig up
Chamorro	hali	to harvest root crop
CMP
Manggarai	hali	to dig up the ground
Palu'e	kali	to dig
Sika	gali	to dig out or up
Dhao/Ndao	kai	to dig
Rotinese	kali	to scratch, dig in the earth (of a dog, chicken); to dig a hole
Helong	gali	to dig
Atoni	hani	to dig
Erai	kali	to dig
Yamdena	n-kal	to dig, dig into; to hollow out trees
	n-kal asak	make holes for the planting of tubers
	ka-kali	dug up
Fordata	kali	to dig
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)	kel	to dig
Buruese	kali-k	to dig, as a trench
SHWNG
As	kail ^<M	to dig

11738

POC *kali ~ keli to dig

OC
Arop	a-kel	to dig
Bebeli	kel	to dig
Kaulong	kil	to dig
Sengseng	kel	to dig
Ali	ʔeil	to dig
Saliba	keli	to dig
Luangiua	ʔeli	to dig
Malmariv	eli	digging stick
Amblong	el	digging stick
Apma	kili	to dig
Lingarak	i-ɣil	to dig
Leviamp	-ɣli	to dig
Avava	il	to dig a hole; dig up
Southeast Ambrym	kil	to dig
Maori	kari	to dig, dig for, dig up
Hawaiian	ʔeli ~ ʔali	to dig, excavate

7704

PMP *ma-ŋali to dig, dig up

WMP
Yami	ma-ŋali	to dig up (as in digging up taro)
Malagasy	ma-ŋadi	to dig, to delve
Iban	ŋali	to dig, dig up or out
Sundanese	ŋali	to dig, dig up
Sasak	ŋaliʔ	to dig
Mongondow	mo-ŋali	to dig, esp. a grave
Tae'	maŋ-kali	to dig; to have the occupation of digger
CMP
Bimanese	ŋari	to dig

7705

PAN *ka-kalih digging stick

Formosan
Bunun (Takituduh)	ka-kaih	digging stick (Tsuchida 1976)

7706

PMP *ka-kali digging stick

WMP
Yami	ka-kali	spade, shovel, metal stick

7707

PWMP *pa-ŋali digging stick (?)

WMP
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	pe-ŋali	to dig up sweet potatoes
Malagasy	fa-ŋadi	a spade
Karo Batak	pe-ŋali	a stick or other implement used for digging things up
Sundanese	pa-ŋali	a piece of bamboo, wood, or iron used in digging
Sasak	pe-ŋaliʔ	digging stick
Tae'	paŋ-kali	a piece of ground that has been dug up for planting, but not yet planted

7708

PAN *k<um>ali to dig up, excavate, as tubers

Formosan
Saisiyat (Taai)	k<om>aLih	to dig something up
Seediq	k<m>ari	to dig (Ferrell 1969)
Thao	k<m>ari	to dig, as in loosening the soil with a pick
Saaroa	k<um>a-kali	to dig
Siraya	k<m>ari	to dig
Paiwan	k<m>ali	to dig a hole
WMP
Ilokano	k<um>áli	to dig into
Tontemboan	k<um>ali	dig postholes

7709

PAN *k<in>alih-an place that has been dug up

Formosan
Paiwan	k<in>ali-an	place where a hole has been dug

7710

PMP *k<in>ali-an place that has been dug up

WMP
Mongondow	k<in>ali-an	place that has been dug up

Note: Also Saisiyat (Taai) k<om>olʸih ‘to dig something up’, Banggai maŋ-gali ‘to dig’ (apparently from Malay), Wetan kai ‘to dig, dig up, dig out’, Watubela galik ‘to dig’. Although this word refers to general digging in many languages, there are a number of indications that it referred more specifically to the digging up of tubers, in particular yams. In some languages, as Ilokano, Ifugaw, or Malagasy, reflexes of PAn *kali ‘canal, ditch’ and the present reconstruction appear to have fused into a single form as a result of phonetic similarity and the common element of excavation shared by both.

30167

*kalik wooden headrest

6957

POC *kalik wooden headrest

OC
Gedaged	kalik	head (neck) rest (support); pillow
Wayan	kali	pillow (formerly made of wood)
Fijian	kali	native pillow, made of wood; lay one’s head down on something
Tongan	kali	native wooden pillow or headrest (carved, with two short legs)
Futunan	kali	wooden headrest with short legs
Samoan	ʔali	bamboo pillow, headrest

Note: Also Mbula kiliigi ‘pillow (something on which to rest one’s head, traditionally made out of wood)’. Osmond and Ross (1998) give POc *kalik ‘native wooden pillow’, based on a similar distribution. This form is in competition with POc *quluŋan for the same meaning, thus raising a question about possible semantic distinctions. A clue is found in Futunan where Moyse-Faurie (1993) gives kali ‘wooden headrest with short legs’, but ʔuluŋa ‘wooden headrest without legs’. Since reflexes of the latter are considerably more common than reflexes of *kalik, it is likely that headrests without legs were more commonly used than those with legs, perhaps correlating with a distinction of social class (*kalik ‘wooden headrest with short legs’ being the prerogative of the upper class?).

31963

*kalika rock cod, grouper

10187

POC *kalika rock cod, grouper

OC
Nauna	keli	small to medium-sized groupers
Lou	keliy	rock cod, grouper
Loniu	keli	smallest type of grouper
Ere	kaliy	small grouper
Leipon	keli	largest kind of grouper
Levei	kaalip	rock cod, grouper
Sori	ariy	rock cod, grouper
Lindrou	kalik	small to medium-sized groupers
Bipi	kali	rock cod, grouper
Seimat	ali	large grouper (about 6 feet long)
Wuvulu	alia	rock cod, grouper
Satawal	yaniy	rock cod (generic): Epinephelidae

Note: This comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011:67). While a Proto-Admiralty form is well-established, the extension to POc depends crucially on a single witness for which little published data exists, and it is possible that the resemblance of Satawal yaniy to Proto-Admiralty *kalika is a product of chance.

30020

*kalikiq kind of edible fruit

6716

PWMP *kalikiq kind of edible fruit

WMP
Minangkabau	kelikéh	papaya
Bare'e	kaliki	papaya
Tae'	kaliki	the papaya: Carica Papaya

Note: The papaya is a New World cultigen, and PWMP *kalikiq therefore cannot have had this meaning. Adriani (1928) marks the Bare'e word as a loan from Buginese and the same may be true of Tae' kaliki. However, Minangkabau kelikéh cannot easily be explained in this way, and the simplest solution on the basis of current evidence is that *kalikiq referred to a native fruit that resembles the papaya and shifted reference to the introduced plant both in Sumatra and in Sulawesi.

26624

*kalim-petpet firefly

3082

PWMP *kalim-petpet firefly [doublet: *qali-petpet, *salim-petpet]

WMP
Ayta Abellan	kaliteptep ^<M	firefly
Karo Batak	kalimpetpet	firefly
Uma	kalipopoʔ	firefly
Wolio	kali-kalimpopo	firefly

26627

*kaliŋ bunch, cluster, as of fruit

3085

PWMP *kaliŋ bunch, cluster, as of fruit

WMP
Hanunóo	kalíŋ	bunch
	kaliŋ-an	cluster of small palm fruits
Iban	kaliŋ	cluster of fruit

27017

*kaliŋaw to forget, be forgotten

3487

PWMP *kaliŋaw to forget, be forgotten

WMP
Kapampangan	kaliŋwan	forget
Bikol	mag-liŋáw	to forget, to dismiss
	ma-liŋaw-án	to forget
	pag-ka-ma-liŋaw-on	forgetfulness, absent-mindedness
	liŋaw-án	to forget, dismiss
Aklanon	liŋáw	to be noisy, make a racket
	ma-liŋáw	noisy, boisterous, raucous
Hiligaynon	mag-liŋáw	to distract, to bother, to amuse, to relax
Manobo (Ata)	kaliŋow	forget
Mansaka	liŋaw	forget
Malagasy	hadíno	forgotten
	ma-nadíno	to forget, to neglect
	hadinó-ina	be forgotten, neglected

Note: Given such forms as Malagasy ma-nadíno < *maŋ- + *kaliŋaw, it seems likely that this base morpheme was trisyllabic. However, its resemblance to a potential disyllable *liŋaw with prefixation by *ka- ‘past participle, achieved state’ may have led speakers of Central Philippine languages to reanalyze it as *ka-liŋaw, hence the various affixational possibilities in Bikol which are not shared outside this subgroup.

31723

*kaliŋkiŋ little finger, pinky

9890

PWMP *kaliŋkiŋ little finger, pinky

WMP
Tagalog	káliŋkiŋ-an	little finger; little toe
Malay	kəliŋkiŋ	little finger

Note: Also Malay kəleŋkeŋ ‘little finger’.

26625

*kalis harden one's feelings, become inured

3083

PWMP *kalis harden one's feelings, become inured

WMP
Ilokano	kalís	dissimulate, dissemble, disguise (one's thoughts, etc.), express (one's thoughts, etc.) with difficulty
Malay	kalis	irreceptive; (fig.) transient, superficial -- of feelings
Sundanese	kalis	put someone or something out of one's thoughts, to think no more of someone or something
Old Javanese	a-kalis	hard, unfeeling, unreceptive, callous, indifferent; untouched, unscathed

31724

*kalít to cheat, deceive

9891

PPh *kalít to cheat, deceive

WMP
Ilokano	kalít	cheat
Bikol	kalít	fraud, deceit
Waray-Waray	kalít	treacherous attack
	pag-kalít	the act of making or doing something, as of inflicting bodily harm on someone with treachery

30061

*kalo neck

6762

POC *kalo neck

OC
Ere	kʷalo-n	his neck
Mussau	alo-	neck
Cape Cumberland	kalo-	neck
	kalo-	neck
Nokuku	alo-	neck

Note: Also Nali koyu-, Merlav ndalo-, Tangoa ralo-, Axamb nə-xalua-, Apma kawo- ‘neck’. The possessive paradigm in Ere shows o ~ u (cf. kʷalu ‘my neck’, kʷalu-m ‘your neck’, raising questions about the underlying form of the final vowel in languages of the Admiralties. This form may have been *kʷalo.

31725

*kalu to stir

9892

PMP *kalu to stir

WMP
Maranao	kalo	to stir; stirring rod
Singhi Land Dayak	karuch	to stir about
CMP
Asilulu	kalu	to stir

12022

POC *kalu stir, mix

OC
Nggela	kalu	to stir up
	kalu-kalu	to stir up; soup
Mota	kal	to stir round and round, mix by stirring

Note: Also Arosi Ɂaro ‘to turn round and round, to stir around’.

31964

*kaluban sheath for bolo or knife

10188

PPh *kaluban sheath for bolo or knife

WMP
Ilokano	kalúban	sheath (covering knives or blades)
	i-kalúban	to sheathe
Casiguran Dumagat	kaluban	bolo sheath; to sheathe a bolo
Tagalog	kalúban	scabbard; a sheath or case for the blade of a sword, dagger, etc.
	kalúban ng baril	holster

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution. Weighing against this interpretation is the observation that Ilokano has kalúb ‘cover, lid’, kalub-án ‘to cover, put a lid on’, while Tagalog kalúban is not synchronically derivable from a base kálub.

31965

*kalug to shake something, as an egg or coconut

10189

PPh *kalug to shake something, as an egg or coconut

WMP
Yogad	kalúg	to shake, as the contents of a container
Pangasinan	man-kalóg	to shake up and down
Hanunóo	kálug	shaking
Agutaynen	mag-kalog-kalog	to shake something

26628

*kalumpaŋ a tree: Sterculia foetida

3086

PMP *kalumpaŋ a tree: Sterculia foetida

WMP
Tagalog	kalumpáŋ	a wild almond tree (Sterculia foetida) the flowers of which have a rather offensive odor, while the fruit yields an oil that can be used for illumination purposes
Cebuano	kalumpaŋ	spreading tree bearing foul-smelling flowers which are a deep red in color, and kidney-shaped fruit: Sterculia foetida
Malay	kelumpaŋ	a tree: Sterculia foetida
Bare'e	kayumpaŋ ~ kalumpaŋ	a tree: Sterculia foetida
Wolio	kalumpa	a tree: Sterculia foetida
CMP
Kambera	kalumbaŋu	a stalwart tree: Sterculia foetida

Note: Also Malay kelapoŋ ‘a tree: Sterculia foetida; its roots and leaves are used medicinally’. The CMP evidence for this form was first pointed out by Verheijen (1984).

26629

*kaluŋ curved

3087

PWMP *kaluŋ curved

WMP
Kadazan Dusun	kahuŋ	deformed (foot, hand)
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	kaluŋ	curved, of carabao horns
Rejang	kaluŋ	necklace
Bare'e	kalu	stiff, of something that has been bent for some time (as a limb); bent (as fingers that have cramped)

Note: With root *-luŋ₁ ‘bend, curve’.

31894

(Formosan only)

*kaluŋkuŋ deep resounding sound

10101

PAN *kaluŋkuŋ deep resounding sound

Formosan
Amis	kaloŋkoŋ	the echo of thunder
WMP
Tiruray	keluŋkuŋ	an owl, Otus sp.

Note: With root *-kuŋ₂ ‘deep resounding sound’. Possibly a convergent innovation from the same monosyllabic root.

31622

*kam- -an formative for collateral kin

9774

PWMP *kam- -an formative for collateral kin

WMP
Yami	kam-ina-n	aunt (< *ina
Rungus Dusun	kom-ina-n	father’s sister, mother’s sister
	kam-ama-n	father’s brother, mother’s brother (< *ama ‘father’)
Murut (Timugon)	kam-ama-n	father’s brother, mother’s brother
	kam-ina-n	father’s sister, mother’s sister
Bisaya (Limbang)	kam-ina-n	aunt
	kam-ama-n	father’s brother, mother’s brother
Ba'amang	kam-anak-an	sibling’s child, cousin’s child (< *anak ‘child’)
Banjarese	kam-anak-an	sibling’s child, cousin’s child (< *anak ‘child’)
Mentawai	kame-ina-n	father’s sister
	kam-ama-n	mother’s brother

Note: Also Western Subanon kom-anak, Western Bukidnon Manobo anak-en ‘nephew, niece’, Mamanwa amaɁ-en ‘uncle’ (amaɁ ‘father’), inaɁ-en ‘aunt’ (inaɁ ‘mother’), the first lacking a suffix and the last three a prefix. A parallel pattern whereby the terms for parental siblings are derived from the words for ‘father’ and ‘mother’ by use of a circumfix different from *kam- -an is seen in some Philippine languages, as Pangasinan, with paŋ-ama-en ‘uncle’, and paŋ-ina-en ‘aunt’.

31650

*kamaguŋ large forest tree with edible brown, hairy fruits: Diospyros discolor

9806

PPh *kamaguŋ large forest tree with edible brown, hairy fruits: Diospyros discolor

WMP
Ilokano	kamágoŋ	a tree with edible brown, hairy fruits: Diospyros discolor
Bikol	kamagóŋ	a tree, Philippine mahogany, producing a light red wood streaked with reddish-brown, used in the making of furniture; also producing an edible fruit: Diospyros discolor
Hanunóo	kamagúŋ	a tree, (Diospyros discolor Willd.?); the term is used only to designate young trees the wood of which is still light in color; for older trees or wood having a darker, seasoned color the term used is baluntínaw
Cebuano	kamagúŋ	kind of large forest tree producing a prized, hard, black wood used as building material and for making canes; the fruit is brown and hairy with white flesh and edible: Diospyros discolor (varieties bearing few seeds are planted and sold commercially as mabúlu)
Maranao	kamagoŋ	Philippine teak, camagon

30496

*kamaliR bachelor’s house, men’s house

7725

PMP *kamaliR bachelor’s house, men’s house

WMP
Yami	kamalig	boat house
Ilokano	kamálig	kind of low granary or warehouse, lower than the agamang but with a larger capacity
	i-kamálig	to store in the granary
Kankanaey	kamálig	kind of box or case found under houses, used for a sleeping place, mostly in the daytime, for a playroom of little children, etc.
Casiguran Dumagat	kamálig	granary (house for storing rice until it can be threshed, put in sacks, and transferred to a house or storehouse)
Tagalog	kamálig	warehouse, storehouse, shed; barn; granary; building where grain is stored
Bikol	kamálig	a temporary shelter, consisting of a roof and posts, but no walls, built in the fields or along the coast to protect harvested crops, boats, etc.
	kará-kamálig	a hut or shed
Masbatenyo	kamálig	granary, barn, animal stable
Aklanon	kamálig	grain house or shed
Waray-Waray	kamalig	barn, barnhouse, storage
Hiligaynon	kamálig	barn
Cebuano	kamálig	storehouse for farm products; stable for work animals
Maranao	kamalig	shed, type of shelter
Binukid	kamalig	storehouse for farm products
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kemalig	a large but temporary house or shelter; to erect such a house or shelter
Tausug	kamalig	a (private) storehouse for harvested grain
Old Javanese	kamalir	a particular kind of (religious?) building
Sasak	kemaliʔ	holy place, holy object
Mongondow	komalig	the house of the prince: palace. In priestly language: house
Banggai	kamali	palace, residence of the prince
Bare'e	komali	workshop of a blacksmith; forge
Buginese	kamaliʔ	bedroom
Wolio	kamali	palace (esp. single-storey)
Muna	kamali	palace (the former house of the Muna king in the old Kota Muna)
CMP
Hawu	kemali	house; member of the household
OC
Loniu	kaman	man, male
	lo koman	men’s house (lit. ‘in the men’s house’)
Nali	kamay	men’s house; man, male
Ere	kimal	man, male
Titan	kamal	men’s house; man, male
Leipon	kimel	man, male
	lo kimel	men’s house (lit. ‘in the men’s house’)
Ahus	kamal	man/male; men’s house
Kuruti	kamal	men’s house; man, male
Papitalai	kamal	men’s house
Sori	amaŋ	men’s house
Lindrou	kamen	men’s house
Mota	gamal	clubhouse of suqe (club) or of a single high rank
Mosina	gemel	men’s house
Lakona	gamel	men’s house
Piamatsina	hamali	men’s house
Malmariv	amali	men’s house
Amblong	amal	men’s house
Araki	ham̈ali	men’s clubhouse, where eminent men traditionally meet and take important decisions
Peterara	xamal	men’s house
Northeast Ambae	kamali	men’s house
Raga	xamali	men’s house
Apma	kamel	men’s house
Atchin	amal	men’s house
Lingarak	na-ɣamal	men’s house
Leviamp	na-m̋el	men’s house
Maxbaxo	na-γamar	men’s house
Bonkovia	kameli	men’s house
Vowa	kamal	men’s house
Namakir	na-kamal	men’s house
Makatea	kamali	men’s house

Note: Also Ifugaw kamálig ‘a wooden floor constructed under an Ifugao house when its inhabitants celebrate the expensive kamálig feast … In hudhúd literature kamálig is used in the sense of hagábi, “lounging bench”; it is set under the house of a wealthy family,’ Ilongot kamari ‘squarish domestic house, raised 6 to 15 feet above the ground’ (Lebar 1975:104), Pangasinan kamálir (expected **kamálil) ‘granary’, Kapampangan kamálig ‘storehouse’, Yakan kamalig ‘storage shed, chicken house, shelter for animals. (A small house for storage of different kinds of things such as rice, corn or implements. It is often built on the ground without flooring, or the floor is close to the ground. Sometimes it consists of a roof only)’, Sangir kamalir-aŋ ‘shed, hut, esp. for a boat’. Not to be confused with Ilokano kamarín ‘barn, granary’, Agta (Eastern) kamárin ‘any small house used for storage; barn’, Ifugaw (Batad) kamalín ‘a relatively large building, as a house built to be lived in; a barn, church, school building’, Cebuano kamarin ‘warehouse with an iron roof’, Mansaka kamarin ‘storage shed’, all of which appear to be borrowings of Spanish camarín ‘small side-chapel; (actor’s) dressing-room; closet’, some acquired directly, as Ilokano kamarín, Cebuano kamarin, or Mansaka kamarin, but others indirectly, as Agta (Eastern) kamárin, which is said to be from Ilokano

As noted in Blust (1987) the most reasonable gloss for this challenging form is ‘men’s house’, that is, a dormitory for unmarried men. According to Fox (1993b:12) “This designation assumes, however, the existence of Melanesian type men’s houses among the early Austronesians prior to their contact with the non-Austronesian populations of New Guinea,” and he notes that “Tryon (1993), assigns *kalamiR the gloss, ‘granary, shed’. It might therefore be appropriate to see the widespread Western Malayo-Polynesian reflexes as a retention and the usages found in Oceania as an innovation.” Quite apart from his repeated mis-citation of the form as *kalamiR (three times in a single 13-line paragraph), and his patently false assertion that “widespread Western Malayo-Polynesian reflexes” support the meaning ‘granary’, there are a number of problems with this statement. First, Fox apparently fails to understand that *kamaliR must be reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic, as this is the only gloss (apart from ‘man, male’ in the Admiralties) that reflexes of *kamaliR have in Oceanic languages. But Proto-Oceanic was spoken by a language community that had only recently arrived in the western Pacific, and that shows little influence from the Papuan languages that were already present in this region. Second, in the context of the wider set of ‘house’ terms considered by Blust (1987) *lepaw is clearly a better PMP candidate for the meaning ‘granary’, as it is attested in this sense in both CMP and WMP languages, whereas *kamaliR is attested in this meaning only in the Philippines. Third, a search through Tryon (1995) turns up no reference to ‘granary shed’, and hence no data that was not already considered in Blust (1987). Fourth, Fox’s suggestion that bachelor’s houses were unknown to Austronesian speakers prior to reaching New Guinea is fundamentally at odds with the ethnographic evidence, since the institution of bachelor’s houses has been described for inter alia, the Amis, Tsou, Rukai and Puyuma of Taiwan (Chen 1988:271ff), the Lepanto and Bontok of northern Luzon (Keesing 1962:121, Lebar 1975:83), the Modang of east Kalimantan (Guerreiro 1998), the Acehnese of northern Sumatra (Loeb 1972:221ff), the Mentaweians just west of Sumatra (Lebar 1972:42), the prehispanic Chamorros, Palauans, and Yapese of western Micronesia (Alkire 1977:21, 30ff, 33ff) ), the Ende of central Flores (Lebar 1972:87), the Sika of east Flores (Lebar 1972:89), the Solorese of east Flores and Adonara (Lebar 1972:92), and the Tanimbarese of the southern Moluccas (Lebar 1972:112). Surprisingly, Green and Pawley (1999:55ff) adopt the same position, concluding that PMP *kamaliR meant ‘granary’ despite the fact that this meaning is attested only within the Philippine subgroup, that the Greater Central Philippine languages of Sulawesi reflect it in other meanings, as ‘palace’ (Mongondow), or ‘boat house’ (Sangir, where, however, *R is reflected as /r/ instead of expected /h/), and that in some of the languages of northern Luzon, as Kankanaey, kamálig describes a sleeping place used “mostly in the daytime.”

In conclusion, the great semantic diversity of reflexes makes it difficult to confidently reconstruct a gloss for PMP *kamaliR, but ‘men’s house’ seems by far the most plausible alternative, as special structures that serves both as dormitories for unmarried men and as men’s clubhouses are widely attested in traditional Austronesian-speaking societies, and POc *kamaliR could have had no other meaning.

31726

*kamandag venom of a poisonous snake or insect

9893

PPh *kamandag venom of a poisonous snake or insect

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kamándag	poison (of a centipede, poisonous snakes, the atang-atang crab, the hahong fish, etc.)
Tagalog	kamandág	venom; the poison of snakes, spiders, etc.
	ma-kamandág	poisonous, venomous
Bikol	kamandág	venom
	ma-kamandag-án	to be poisoned by venom (as from a snake bite)
Agutaynen	kamandag	small black fuzzy worms, like caterpillars, which live on leaves (they eat the leaves of rice plants, causing much damage)
Palawan Batak	kamandág	poisoned tip of blowpipe dart; root used to make poison
Cebuano	kamandág	poison venom

33620

*kamansi the seeded breadfruit tree: Artocarpus camansi

12361

PPh *kamansi the seeded breadfruit tree: Artocarpus camansi [doublet: *kamansiq]

WMP
Hanunóo	kamánsi	a tree and its edible fruit: Artocarpus camansi
Cebuano	kamansi	breadfruit with seeds, the seeds and pulp of which are eaten as a vegetable when not ripe: Artocarpus camansi
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kemasi	the seeded breadfruit tree and its fruit: Artocarpus camansi
Mansaka	kamansi	breadfruit
Tiruray	kemasey	breadfruit

33521

*kamansiq the seeded breadfruit tree: Artocarpus camansi

12253

PPh *kamansiq the seeded breadfruit tree: Artocarpus camansi [doublet: *kamansi]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kamánsi	species of seeded breadfruit tree: Artocarpus camansi
Tagalog	kamansíʔ	a kind of tree of the breadfruit family
Maranao	kamansiʔ	breadfruit

31654

*kamantigi a plant: Impatiens balsamina

9810

PPh *kamantigi a plant: Impatiens balsamina

WMP
Ilokano	kamantígi	Impatiens balsamina, balsam, touch-me-not, used in native medicine against boils
Cebuano	kamantígi	an ornamental annual growing up to two feet high, bearing red, white, and pink flowers, and and fleshy capsules which burst when touched: Impatiens balsamina

Note: Also Tagalog kamantígiɁ ‘a species of succulent herb’, Cebuano kalamantígi ‘a plant: Impatiens balsamina’. Possibly a loan distribution.

26634

*kamaŋ creep, crawl

3092

PWMP *kamaŋ creep, crawl

WMP
Kankanaey	kámaŋ	crawl on all fours
Aklanon	kámaŋ	crawl on all fours
Cebuano	kámaŋ	creep, crawl
Lingkabau	k<um>amaŋ	to crawl
Kadazan Dusun	kamaŋ	to crawl
Abai Sembuak	ŋgamaŋ	to crawl
Lun Dayeh	kamaŋ	creeping, crawling (as a very young child)
Kayan	kamaŋ	crawl, crawling, advancing on all fours

31949

*kamaŋa kind of useful stone

10167

PPh *kamaŋa kind of useful stone

WMP
Bontok	kamáŋa	kind of soft red stone; the soil which results from the deterioration of this stone
Aklanon	kamáŋa(h)	flint, fine stone used for sharpening razor
Maranao	kamaŋa	grindstone, whetstone
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kemaŋa	whetstone; to whet a knife or other tool

Note: Also Sangir kamaŋsa ‘whetstone’. Possibly a chance resemblance between Bontok and the other languages, since Greater Central Philippine languages agree in pointing to a whetstone, while the Bontok referent lacks the properties of this type of stone.

26633

*kamaŋi a strongly-scented plant: Ocimum sanctum L.

3091

PWMP *kamaŋi a strongly-scented plant: Ocimum sanctum L.

WMP
Hanunóo	kamáŋi	plant species, Ocimum sanctum L.. The leaves have some reportedly medicinal value; when dried the herb is placed among clothes to scent them
Cebuano	kamaŋy-an	dried form of the resin obtained from almasiga (Agathis philippinensis) and other forest trees. It is burned over coals for its smoke, which is used in folk medicine and other rituals for magical purposes, and also as a mosquito smudge
Malay	medaŋ kemaŋi	strongly scented plant the leaves of which are used in native medicine: Cinnamomum parthenoxylon
	selaseh kemaŋi	basil: Ocimum canum, used as a seasoning for food
Sasak	kemaŋi	plant used as a vegetable: Ocimum sanctum L.
Wolio	kamaŋi	kind of plant used for making fragrant face powder: Ocimum basilicum

31966

*kamaRi a fish, the rainbow runner: Elagatis bipinnulata

10190

POC *kamaRi a fish, the rainbow runner: Elagatis bipinnulata

OC
Nali	kemey	the rainbow runner: Elagatis bipinnulata
Titan	kamey	the rainbow runner: Elagatis bipinnulata
Gilbertese	kama	a fish, the rainbow runner

Note: This comparison was proposed by Osmond (2011:72). Until further confirmation can be found it must be considered tentative.

26630

*kamas scratch

3088

PWMP *kamas scratch

WMP
Maranao	kamas	scratch
Bare'e	kama	scratch with the nails, as an itchy spot

32055

*kamatu double-headed parrotfish

10289

POC *kamatu double-headed parrotfish [disjunct: *amatu]

OC
Titan	kamatu	double-headed parrotfish: Bolbometopon
Seimat	amatu	a large reef fish, probably double-headed parrotfish
Lukep (Pono)	kamatu	large bottom-feeding reef fish that swims in groups and has a large protrusion on its head

Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011:96-97).

26632

*kamay hand

3090

PAN *kamay hand

Formosan
Amis	kamay ~ kayam	hands, including the arm
WMP
Yami	kamay	finger; width of a finger (unit of measurement)
	ka-kamay	finger, toe
Itbayaten	ka-kamay	finger, limbs (of crustaceans)
Tagalog	kamáy	hand
Cebuano	kamáy	summon by a wave of the hand
Taboyan	kamɨy	hand
SHWNG
Minyaifuin	kame	hand
OC
Kokota	kame-na	hand
Zabana	kame	hand

26631

*kamaya plant sp.: Diospyros discolor

3089

PAN *kamaya plant sp.: Diospyros discolor

Formosan
Amis	kamaya	a bush, the Taiwan Ebony Velvet Apple: Diospyros discolor
Paiwan (Western)	kamaya	mango: Diospyros discolor
WMP
Itbayaten	kamaya	species of plant (Ebenaceae, Diospyros discolor)
Hanunóo	kamayá	a species of tree (family Ebenaceae)

32011

*kambu lower stomach, bladder

10238

PMP *kambu lower stomach, bladder

WMP
Makassarese	kambu	the innermost part of something; pith of palms
	bone-kambu	intestines
	ak-kambu	thrust into the body, as a piercing weapon
CMP
Kodi	kambu	belly
Kambera	kambu	belly; womb
	ihi kambu	what is found in the belly: intestines, food
Tetun	kabu-n	stomach, abdomen (of humans)
	kabu-n moras	stomach ache
	kabu-teek	pot-bellied (an insult)
	ai-n kabu-n	calf of leg
Galoli	abu-r	belly
Watubela	kabu	belly
Manusela	abu-	intestines
Proto-Ambon	*kabu-	guts, belly

26636

*kambur mix

3094

PMP *kambur mix

WMP
Ilokano	kambór	mixing
	ag-kambór	to mix together (various substances)
Maranao	kambor	stir, mix
CMP
Ngadha	kabhu	to mix

Note: Possibly with root *-buR₁ ‘rice gruel; to mix’, but if so the Maranao form shows an unexplained change *R > r.

26635

*kambuR sprinkle, scatter (seed, etc.)

3093

PMP *kambuR sprinkle, scatter (seed, etc.)

WMP
Bare'e	kambu	sprinkle with pounded rice, as the coffin of one who has no surviving siblings
OC
Fijian	kabu	sow or scatter small seeds

Note: With root *-buR₂ ‘strew, sow; sprinkle’.

31652

*kam(e)qáw kind of urn for storing food

9808

PPh *kam(e)qáw kind of urn for storing food

WMP
Ilokano	kam-ʔáw	kind of broad-mouthed jar used for holding lard
Tagalog	kam-ʔáw ~ kamáw	reddish earthen pan or bowl
Cebuano	kam-ʔáw	shallow earthen bowl used to hold food; to put in a small earthen bowl

31653

*kamet do with the hand

9809

PMP *kamet do with the hand [doublet: *kemet]

WMP
Itbayaten	kamet	pick up
	ma-ŋamet	to pick up (by hand)
	kamt-an	where to hold in picking up (something)
Ibatan	kamet	to grasp something with the tips of the fingers, especially cooked rice
Kankanaey	ma-kámet	diligent; active; assiduous; sedulous; laborious; industrious
Casiguran Dumagat	kamət	hand, arm (exclusive of the fingers)
Bikol	kamót	hand
	ma-kamt-án	to acquire, get, possess
	kamot-ón	to handle
Cebuano	kamút	hand; do with the hand; be obtained, achieved
	k<in>amút	do something by hand
Mansaka	kamot	finger; claw
Tausug	kamut	a handful
	k<um>amut	to scoop (something) with the hand
Kayan	kamet	a light touch with fingers
SHWNG
Buli	ka-kamo	hand (and arm)

Note: Also Sambal (Botolan) gamɨt, Pangasinan kámot ‘raise food to the mouth; eat with the hands’, Kapampangan gamát ‘hand (sometimes used to mean lower arm in general)’, Proto-Sangiric *kamet ‘to signal with the hand’.

31655

*kamiá ginger plant with fragrant white flower

9811

PPh *kamiá ginger plant with fragrant white flower

WMP
Ilokano	kamiá	species of fragrant white flower
Tagalog	kamyá	species of herb which bears fragrant flowers
Bikol	kámya	sweet-scented white lily: Hedychium coronarium
Aklanon	kámya	white flower, camia
Cebuano	kamyá	kind of ornamental ginger producing good-sized, white, fragrant flowers; the rhizomes are used medicinally: Hedychium coronarium

Note: Possibly a loan distribution.

31623

*kamiri the candlenut tree: Aleurites moluccana

9775

PMP *kamiri the candlenut tree: Aleurites moluccana

WMP
Hanunóo	kamiri	Aleurites moluccana Linn. (Madulid 2001)
Iban	kemiri	tree bearing hard nuts, candle nut, Aleurites triloba Forst.
Malay	buah kəmiri	candle-nut
Sundanese	kamiri	a tree with a nut similar in shape to a walnut which yields an oil, and can be used in a game like marbles
Old Javanese	kamiri ~ kameri	the candle-nut tree: Aleurites triloba
Javanese	kemiri	candlenut; candlenut tree
CMP
Tetun	kamii	a tree with oily fruit, the candlenut: Aleurites Moluccana

Note: Also Asilulu kamiri ‘kind of spice, candlenut, Aleurites moluccana’ (said to be from Malay). Although the Asilulu term may be a Malay loan, this is much harder to argue for Hanunóo, since the term is unknown in many Philippine languages that have borrowed much more heavily from Malay.

32012

*kamisu spittle; to spit

10239

POC *kamisu spittle; to spit [doublet: *kanisu]

OC
Lihir	kamic	spittle
Banoni	kamisu	to spit
Mono-Alu	amisu	to spit
Owa	misu	to spit (loss of CV- unexplained)

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross and Osmond (2016:280).

26637

*kamit scratch

3095

PMP *kamit scratch

WMP
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kamit	scratched
OC
Tolai	kamit	scratch, catch, as a thorn in the clothes

31637

*kamkam to seize, take by force

9790

PWMP *kamkam to seize, take by force

WMP
Ilokano	kamkám	greedy
Casiguran Dumagat	kamkam	to appropriate the land of a neighbor (illegally)
Tagalog	kamkám	appropriation of things for self; usurpation; claiming or taking something without right
Bikol	mag-kamkám	to appropriate someone else’s property
Cebuano	kamkám	touch with the fingers; take something that is not one’s own (as in embezzling funds)
Toba Batak	maŋ-haŋkam	seize for oneself

9791

PPh *kamkam-en to appropriate to oneself illegally

WMP
Ilokano	kamkam-én	to acquire unjustly or illegally
Kankanaey	kamkám-en	to take up, to gather up, to pick up with both hands; to take (etc.) everything, all the whole
Tagalog	kamkam-ín	to take for oneself, excluding others; to claim or take without right
Bikol	kamkam-ón	to appropriate someone else’s property

Note: Samoan ɁaɁa-mi ‘to fetch’ may also be connected.

31699

*kampi to defend

9864

PPh *kampi to defend

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kámpi	to take the side of someone in a conflict; to be partial to someone; to take sides, favor
	kámpi-kámpi	to stay with one’s own kind (as for girls to stay with girls, and boys with boys); to be loyal to one’s own kind (e.g. relatives); to stick together
Tagalog	kampí	taking the side of someone in a conflict; biased; favoring one side too much
	ka-kampi	ally; one who cheers for a team, etc., rooter, fan
	maki-kampí	to join an alliance
	kampih-an	alliance
	kampí-kampí	being on the same side in a conflict, etc.
Bikol	kámpi	side, faction, part; referring to a transaction in which the buyer receives one part more than he gives, such as exchanging four parts of rice for five parts of coconut wine
	ka-kampí sa	to be biased in favor of; to be partial to; to be onesided in someone’s favor
Cebuano	kampí	take sides with
Mansaka	kampi	to defend (as a person in a conflict)

9865

PPh *k<um>ampi to join, unite with in taking sides

WMP
Ilokano	k<um>ampí	to join, offer allegiance to
Tagalog	k<um>ampí	to ally; to unite or join by alliance; to follow; to cheer for; to take the side of

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.

31752

*kampil plaited palm leaf bag or pouch

9921

PWMP *kampil plaited palm leaf bag or pouch

WMP
Palawano	kampil	small plaited container in two parts
Maranao	kampil-oʔ	satchel, basket
Tausug	kampil	a woven container of coconut leaves used for keeping fruit or raw or cooked provisions
Ngaju Dayak	kampil	a pouch woven of leaves and used mostly to carry copper money
Malay	kampil	large envelope-shaped matwork bag
Toba Batak	hampil	cartridge pouch
Old Javanese	kampil	bag, pouch (for money or valuables)
	ka-kampil-an	to put in a bag
	ma-kampil	carrying the treasures (regalia, heirlooms, etc.)
Javanese	kampil	a small purse woven from dried grass
Balinese	kampil	purse, bag

Note: Possibly a Malay loan distribution.

26638

*kampis deflate, shrink

3096

PMP *kampis deflate, shrink

WMP
Ilokano	kápis	empty, flat, flat-chested
Maranao	kampis	deteriorate, atrophy
Kadazan Dusun	kampis	flat and thin, flatten
CMP
Manggarai	hampés	shrunken; empty stomach

Note: With root *-pis₁ ‘deflate, be empty’.

31166

*kampit to adhere, stick to

9178

PMP *kampit to adhere, stick to

WMP
Tagalog	kápit ~ kapít	adhering; sticking; stuck; glued
	i-kápit	to stick, paste or glue something onto something else (stress on the object)
	k<um>ápit	to adhere or stick
	kapít-an	to stick or glue onto something (stress on the place)
Aklanon	kápit	cling to, adhere to

9179

POC *kabit₂ to adhere, stick to

OC
Fijian	kabi	to adhere or stick to
	kabi-ta	to adhere, stick to (trans.); sticky, gluey

Note: Apparently distinct from *kapit ‘to fasten...’

31810

*kampuŋ abdomen, belly

10000

PCEMP *kampuŋ abdomen, belly [doublet: *kempuŋ]

CMP
Kodi	kambu	belly
Kambera	kambu	belly; womb
Tetun	kabun ~ kabu	stomach, abdomen (of humans)
	kabu fuan	fetus
	ain kabun	calf of leg
Galoli	abu-r	belly
Erai	kapun	belly
Watubela	kabu	belly
Kamarian	apu	belly
Proto-Ambon	*kabu-	guts, belly
	*kabu	guts, belly
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	ambun	abdomen

10021

POC *kabuŋ stomach of an animal

OC
Nauna	kahu-n	stomach of a person, fish or animal
Baluan	kapu-n	stomach of an animal
Penchal	kahu-n	stomach of an animal

Note: Also Lou kou-n ‘stomach of an animal’, Tongan kōpū ‘gullet of a fish’, Futunan kopū ‘swim bladder of a fish’, Hawaiian Ɂōpū ‘belly, stomach, abdomen, tripe, giblet, gizzard, bladder, crop of a bird’.

30168

*kamu₁ sheath of a coconut?

6958

POC *kamu₁ sheath of a coconut?

OC
Lou	kamu	sheath of coconut flower
Duke of York	kamu	stem of a bunch of coconuts
Sa'a	kämu i niu	fallen sheath of coconut

31688

*kamu₂ chew, move to and fro in the mouth

9852

POC *kamu₃ chew, move to and fro in the mouth

OC
Gedaged	kamu-kamu	move something to and fro in the mouth; move the lips when chewing; nibble around a kernel held in the mouth; gnaw at somethting
Cheke Holo	gamu	eat
Tolo	kämu	to eat the betel mixture (cited in Ivens 1929 as the equivalent of Sa’a dämu)
Lau	kamu	chew (betel nut)
'Āre'āre	kamu	chew betelnut
Tahitian	ʔamu	to eat
Maori	kamu	to eat; munch, move the mouth as if eating

Note: This comparison was first proposed in Blust (1978:143-144), and more recently in an extended form by Ross and Osmond (2016:232).

26639

*kamuniŋ a tree: Murraya sp.

3097

PMP *kamuniŋ a tree: Murraya sp.

WMP
Bikol	kamuníŋ	a tree: Murraya paniculata
Cebuano	kamuniŋ	small tree of the secondary forest: Murraya paniculata
Malay	kayu kemuniŋ	beautiful veined yellow wood: obtained from Murraya exotica and used for making kris-handles and scabbards
Old Javanese	kamuniŋ	kind of tree with yellow wood: Murraya sp.
Sasak	kemuniŋ	tree with yellow wood used for kris handles
CMP
Manggarai	kemuniŋ	a tree: probably Murraya exotica
Wahai	kamoni	a tree: Murraya sp.

Note: Also Old Javanese kumuniŋ ‘kind of tree with yellow wood: Murraya sp.’, Bare'e kamoni ‘a tree, the leaves of which are much used: Clerodendron minahasae’.

31968

*kamwa-kamwa Ficus sp.

10192

POC *kamwa-kamwa Ficus sp.

OC
Misima	ka-kamʷa	tree with small rounded, light green leathery leaves, white motley-colored bark, and small, fig-shaped fruit
Santa Ana	kamʷa-kamʷa	sandpaper cabbage: Ficus wassa

Note: A slightly larger version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2008b:309). Until further supporting evidence is forthcoming this reconstruction must be considered highly tentative.

31628

*kana- classiifer for edible possession

9780

POC *kana- classifier for edible possession

OC
Lou	ka-	marker of edible possession
Seimat	an-	marker of edible possession
Manam	Ɂana-	marker of edible possession
Tami	ka-	marker of edible possession
Dobuan	Ɂa	marker of edible possession
Nggela	ga-	makes possessive pronouns with pronouns ŋgu, mu, na: ga-ŋgu, ga- mu, ga-na ‘my, thy, his’, but only with things to eat and drink, and certain other words
Arosi	Ɂa-na	his, hers, its; when food, drink, medicine or anything acting on the person is referred to
Pohnpeian	kene	marker of edible possession
Woleaian	gale-	possessive classifier for food
Mota	ga-	possessive marker of close relationship, generally of food
Araki	ha-	possessive classifier for food
Raga	ga-	marker of edible possession

Note: Also Wayan ke- ‘prenominal particle; food possession-marker, indicating that the possessed thing is eaten, or is considered as food-producing’, Fijian ke ‘possessive noun, used with suffixed pronouns, indicating (1) that the object is to be eaten, (2) concerning a person or thing, (3) expressing certain characteristics of a person or thing’.

The shape of this important grammatical morpheme is debatable. Lichtenberk (1985:117) posited POc *ka-, but this fails to account for the reflex of a nasal in Seimat, Manam, Pohnpeian or Woleaian. In view of POc *kana ‘food’ it seems likely that the possessive classifier was itself a possessed noun, hence Nggela ga-ŋgu vundi ‘my banana’ (to eat) < POc *kana-gu pudi ‘my food (which is a) banana’. Like many grammatical morphemes that have high text frequency, *kana in possessive constructions was shortened to ka- in most languages. This word is ultimately related to a suffixed form of PAn *kaen ‘to eat’, but its rather independent development in POc merits an independent entry.

31627

*kana₁ food

9779

POC *kana food₁

OC
Proto-Admiralty	*kana	food
Nauna	kana-n	taste
Levei	kana	food
Likum	kana-y	food
Sori	ana-y	food
Seimat	an	food
Wuvulu	an-ana	to eat
	ana-ia	eat it!
Aua	ana	food
Nggela	gana	food
	ga gana	edible
Arosi	kana-kana	to have a nice taste in the mouth
Proto-Micronesian	*kana	food
Gilbertese	kana	to eat, to devour, to consume, gnaw; deteriorate
Chuukese	ana-	food to eat; food portion (of cooked starchy food)
Mota	gana	to eat food
	gana-gana	an eating, meal, feast
Iaai	an	food
Fijian	kana	to eat; a meal
	kā-kana	food

Note: Also Kairiru ʔanaʔ ‘food’. In some languages reflexes of this form are verbal, but POc *kani is more plausibly reconstrucible as the verb ‘to eat’. Possibly a reflex of PAn *kaen-an ‘place where one eats’, but this remains uncertain.

31830

*kana₂ enemy

10026

POC *kana₂ enemy

OC
Mono-Alu	kana	(song word) war
Roviana	kana	an enemy, a foe
Bugotu	kana	enemy
Nggela	kana	an enemy
	kana-hagi	to be an enmity with

Note: Possibly identical to *kana ‘food’, although the suffixed Nggela form suggests *kanas. The known reflexes of this form are restricted to languages in the Solomon Islands, and although these fall into different primary branches of Oceanic the possibility of diffusion cannot be completely ruled out.

33621

*kanadem a tree: Diospyros sp.

12362

PPh *kanadem a tree: Diospyros sp.

WMP
Yami	kanarem	a tree: Diospyros kotoensis
Ivatan	kanarem	a tree: Diospyros lanceifolia Roxb. (Madulid 2001)
Hanunóo	kanárum	a species of tree
Bisayan (Panay)	kanalum	a tree: Diospyros ahernii Merr. (Madulid 2001)

31689

*kana-kana to think, ponder

9853

POC *kana-kana to think, ponder

OC
Gedaged	kan-kan	to think, consider, reflect, muse, cogitate, deliberate, speculate, meditate, imagine, ponder
Bugotu	gana	to think
Nggeri	gana-gana	to think, suppose, intend

30169

*kanam sing; song

6959

POC *kanam sing; song

OC
Gedaged	kanam	a song, hymn
Kwaio	gana	to sing
Lau	kana	to hum; to sing old songs
	kana fāfi	to hum or sing a lullaby to a child
Toqabaqita	kana	kind of traditional song; to sing (traditional kana or modern songs)
'Āre'āre	kana	sing, in incantations to a spirit in order to know a cure against a sickness
Sa'a	kana ~ kana-kana	to sing; a song
Ulawa	kana ni henua	dance songs
Arosi	gana	to sing
	idu gana	compose a song (usually in dreams)
	gana-gana	to sing
	gana-ria	acclaimed in song, sung of

26646

*kanaŋa a tree with fragrant flowers: Cananga odorata

3104

PMP *kanaŋa a tree with fragrant flowers: Cananga odorata

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kanaŋa	tree with fragrant blossoms from which an odorous yellowish oil is extracted
Malay	kənaŋa	a tree known for its sweet-scented flowers; the dried flowers are used medicinally to mitigate fever
Sundanese	kanaŋa	name of a tree with yellow, fragrant flowers
Old Javanese	kanaŋa	tree with fragrant flowers: Cananga odorata
Makassarese	kanaŋa	tree with redolent flowers: Cananga odorata
CMP
Manggarai	kenaŋa	tall, straight tree with yellow, lightweight trunk; its bark is used for walling and flooring
Buruese	kanaŋa	a tree having fragrant flowers, the “kumbang of Ambon”: Cananga odorata

Note: Also Tetun kanaŋa ‘a tree of the nutmet family (Myristica), with highly perfumed flowers’ (with irregular velar nasal).

26641

*kanap₁ creep, crawl

3099

PMP *kanap₁ creep, crawl

WMP
Bikol	kanáp	to creep (on)
Cebuano	kánap	spread over an area (as measles over the body)
Kayan	kanap	crawling, creeping very slowly (of insects, plants)
OC
Lakalai	gala, gala gala	to crawl

31656

*kanap₂ dark, obscure

9812

PPh *kanap₂ dark, obscure

WMP
Kankanaey	naka-kánap	dark; obscure
Ifugaw	kánap	complete darkness
Cebuano	kanap-kánap	blurred, dim eyesight; for the eyesight to become blurred

31772

*kanari tree with edible nut, the Canarium almond: Canarium commune

9942

PMP *kanari tree with edible nut, the Canarium almond: Canarium commune [doublet: *kaŋaRi]

WMP
Malay	kənari	the Java almond, a very handsome shade tree planted in avenues in Java; its seeds are rich in oil and its sap produces the elemi (k.o. resin) of our pharmacopeia: Canarium commune
Javanese	kənari	a certain tree and its pecan-like nuts
Tontemboan	kanari	the canarium tree and its nut: Canarium commune
Wolio	kanari	kind of tree and its fruit, Java almond: Canarium commune
CMP
Bimanese	kanari	canarium almond
Solorese	kenari	canarium almond
Wetan	kənari	tree with oleiferous seed
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	anar	walnut
OC
Baluan	kanai	canarium almond
Sori	kenai	canarium almond

Note: Citing data from Verheijen (1990) together with Oceanic material, Ross (2008:315) has posited PCEMP *ka(nŋ)aRi ‘canarium almond, Canarium spp.’. However, the Javanese, Tontemboan, Bimanese and Solorese reflexes of *kanari all point to a proto-form with *r, not *R (Malay and Wetan are ambiguous), and although the Sori reflex of *r is h in initial position, its intervocalic reflex is unclear. On balance, then, it seems best at least tentatively to posit PMP *kanari, reflected in WMP and CMP languages, and a doublet *kaŋaRi that co-existed with this form in POc (reduced by loss of the first syllable in some languages).

26642

*kanarum tree sp.

3100

PMP *kanarum tree sp.

WMP
Hanunóo	kanárum	tree sp.
Tboli	kenalum	a tree; black dye for the abaca fiber is obtained by boiling its leaves
OC
Arosi	ʔanaru, kanaru	tree sp. with large leaves

26645

*kanawa a tree: Cordia spp.

3103

PMP *kanawa a tree: Cordia spp.

WMP
Iban	kenawa	palm yielding a large areca nut, sp. unident.
Makassarese	kanawa	kind of tree
Palauan	kəláu	geiger tree: Cordia sebestena L.
OC
Gilbertese	kanawa	a tree: Cordia subcordata
Nukuoro	ganava	tree sp.: Cordia subcordata Lam.

26644

*kanaway kind of white bird: probably gull sp.

3102

PMP *kanaway kind of white bird: probably gull sp.

WMP
Ilokano	kannáway	heron with white plumage, living in the vicinity of rivers and brooks
Isneg	kanáway	kind of heron with white plumage
Cebuano	kanáway	white sea bird, some 6 inches long and 4 inches high, found perched on driftwood or on sea corals
Murut (Timugon)	kanaway	white cattle egret
Malay (Brunei)	kenawai	large white Borneo bird
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	anawa	common tern

6452

POC *kanawe kind of white sea bird, probably gull sp.

OC
Lou	kana	seagull
Loniu	kanaw	black bird similar to sea gull
Titan	kanaw	seagull
Nggela	ganae	seagull
Kwaio	ʔanakwe	gull variety
Arosi	ʔanawe	white; Tropic Boatswain bird: Phaeton aethurus
Bauro	ganawe	white, of birds only

Note: Also Kadazan Dusun kandavai ‘a white heron that often perches on buffaloes’. PMP *kanaway probably designated the white cattle egret or a similar heron, but in POc the word evidently was transferred to some type of gull.

In spite of problems with the comparative phonology, Milke (1968) assigned Nggela ganae, and such forms as Mailu anawe ‘small seagull’, Siâ ka-na-nawe ‘seagull’ to POc *(ŋ)gana(g)e ‘seagull’. It now seems likely that these forms belong with the present cognate set. Sangir manu kaŋ ‘seagull’, which Milke regarded as external support for his POc reconstruction, appears to be unrelated.

31770

*kandaŋ enclosure, pen for animals

9940

PWMP *kandaŋ enclosure, pen for animals

WMP
Tombonuwo	kandaŋ	pen for animal
Ngaju Dayak	kandaŋ	a stall, stable, a place that is fenced in
Malay	kandaŋ	fenced enclosure for animals
	kandaŋ ayam	poultry-run
	kandaŋ babi	pig-sty
Toba Batak	handaŋ	fence; enclosure
Old Javanese	kanḍaŋ	pen, cowshed
Javanese	kanḍaŋ	animal pen
	kanḍaŋ pitik	chicken coop

Note: Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *kanDaŋ ‘enclosure, pen’. Possibly a Malay loan distribution, as cognates are found only within the area where Malay loanwords are common.

26648

*kandiŋ goat

3106

PWMP *kandiŋ goat [doublet: *kambiŋ]

WMP
Pangasinan	kandíŋ	goat
Bikol	kandíŋ	goat
Kayan (Busang)	kadiŋ	goat

Note: Also Yami kagliŋ, Bontok keldiŋ, Kankanaey kaldí ‘goat’.

26647

*kandis a tree: Garcinia sp.

3105

PWMP *kandis a tree: Garcinia sp.

WMP
Hanunóo	kandís	tree with reddish fruits: Garcinia rubra Merr.
Palawano	kandis	tree with tart or sour fruits
Iban	kandis	generic for trees, Garcinia sp., yielding edible fruit
Malay	kandis	tree yielding an acid fruit: Garcinia atrolineata
Gayō	kanis	a tree: Garcinia atronileata
Karo Batak	kandis	kind of tree

30046

*kandoRa cuscus, phalanger

6745

PCEMP *kandoRa cuscus, phalanger

CMP
Watubela	kadola	marsupial
SHWNG
Taba	do	cuscus
Buli	do	kind of small marsupial

6746

POC *kadoRa cuscus, phalanger

OC
Nauna	kocay	cuscus, phalanger
Penchal	kotay	cuscus, phalanger
Sori	ohay	cuscus, phalanger
Seimat	koxa	cuscus, phalanger
Mussau	aroa	cuscus, phalanger
Bali (Uneapa)	ghandora	cuscus
Vitu	hadora	cuscus, possum
Manam	ʔodora	cuscus, phalanger
Kilivila	kwadoya	cuscus, possum

Note: All reflexes in languages of the Admiralty Islands (Seimat, Sori, Penchal and Nauna here) show metathesis of the vowels, pointing to Proto-Admiralty *kodaya. Also Nggela kandora ‘cuscus, phalanger’. Osmond and Pawley (2011:225-226), cite a number of other Oceanic reflexes of this form, and note that /r/ for expected /l/ in Nggela and various Southeast Solomonic languages “is consistent with borrowing from Meso-Melanesian neighbors in the western Solomons.”

31615

*kanduŋ womb?

9761

PWMP *kanduŋ womb?

WMP
Tagalog	kandóŋ	held on the lap (as a mother holding her child)
	kanduŋ-an	lap
Iban	kandoŋ	womb, foetus; (of padi, fruit) in bearing, fruiting, having fruit set and swelling; (of women) pregnant, conceive
Malay	kandoŋ	carrying in an enclosed space, of pocketing, being with child
Bahasa Indonesia	kanduŋ	pocket, pouch; womb
Minangkabau	padi mə-ŋandoŋ	rice in the ear

31740

*kaniá own, one’s own; self

9908

PPh *kaniá own, one’s own; self

WMP
Ilokano	kaniá ~ kanyá	combines with -ko pronouns to form the obliques
	kaniá-k	to me
	kaniá-m	to you (sg., informal)
	kaniá-na	to him, her, it
Casiguran Dumagat	kániya	own
	kani-kániya a bile	one’s own house
Tagalog	kaniyá ~ kanyá	his; her; hers
	kaniyah-ín	to appropriate something for himself or herself
	kani-kaniyá, kanyá-kanyá	each his own
Bikol	kanyá	to each his own; every man for himself
	kanyá-kanyáŋ bayad	Dutch treat
Palawan Batak	kánya	he

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.

30869

*kani-kani scruffiness of the skin; dirt, dregs

8694

POC *kani-kani scruffiness of the skin; dirt, dregs

OC
Vitu	hani-hani	get infected
Motu	kani-kani	full of dirt, weeds or mud (metaphor of infectious diseases, wars, raids or killing)
Nggela	kani-kani	a skin disease which leaves white scars or patches on the skin, different from taeniaho (‘showing first patches of leprosy, whiter than kani’)
'Āre'āre	kani	a skin disease, white spots
Wayan	kani-kani	(of land, body) be wasting away, be wasted, eaten away, eroded; (of skin) be flaky, scaly, as patches of skin in a habitual kava drinker
Fijian	kani	scales and roughness of the skin caused by excessive drinking of yaqona (kava); also the dregs of yaqona in the cup or bowl

Note: Pawley and Sayaba (2003) associate Wayan kani-kani with the unreduplicated base kani ‘eat, consume food’, and a similar idea appears in Vitu hani-hani ‘eat; get infected’, where the extension of the basic sense of ‘eat’ is quite transparent. However, reflexes in other languages, as Motu, Nggela or 'Āre'āre suggest that *kani-kani may have been a distinct form that overlapped phonetically with the reduplicated form of *kani ‘eat’, and was semantically close enough that speakers in several language traditions drew a connection between cutaneous scruffiness and an infection that was ‘eating’ the skin.

30669

*kanisu to spit at (as an insult?)

8206

PEMP *kanisu to spit at (as an insult?) [doublet: *kanus, *qanus]

SHWNG
Wandamen	kanisu	saliva
Serui-Laut	kunui	saliva
Kurudu	kenisa	saliva
OC
Pak	kanuh	saliva; to spit
Seimat	kan i anuhu-	saliva
Mussau	kanusu	to spit
Kairiru	qVns	spit out at
Motu	kanudi	to spit; spittle
	kanudi-a	to spit on
Samasodu	ki-knisu	to spit
Marau₂	nisu	to spit

Note: Also Tanga kamus, Wogeo kusu ‘to spit’, Takia lusu ‘saliva’, ulusu ‘to spit’, Mbula kauzi ‘spittle, saliva (white or red)’, Tubetube kaiso ‘to spit out, as betel nut or bad food’, Gapapaiwa kanu, Mono-Alu amisu, Selau kimsə, Mbareke kamisu ‘to spit’. The Kairiru form is said to have a first-syllable vowel that varies with the vowel of the proclitic subject pronoun. This comparison is frustrating in that most forms are irregular in some way. However, its doublet POc *qanusi appears to be more amenable to systematic treatment, and between the two forms it seems far more likely that we are dealing with a set of historically related forms rather than a collection of similarities produced by chance.

32013

*kanoŋ flesh, meat, coconut flesh

10240

POC *kanoŋ flesh, meat, coconut flesh

OC
Lukep (Pono)	kano-	fruit (of, e.g.., breadfruit), inner substance
Mutu	anoŋ-a	seed, fruit
Arosi	ʔano	bulb, tuber, part of a tree below the ground
Tongan	kano	flesh or substance (generally used instead of kakano in genitive constructions and compounds)
	ka-kano	flesh; lean (as opposed to fat); muscle
Samoan	ʔa-ʔano	[gloss]
Rennellese	kano	[gloss]
	ʔano	kind, nature, character, type, likeness, resemblance, image, color, moral quality, meaning

10241

POC *kanoŋ qi mata eyeball

OC
Numbami	mat-ano	eyeball
Wedau	mata ano-na	eyeball
Tongan	kano ʔi mata	eyeball

Note: Osmond and Ross (2016:121) argue that the word for ‘eyeball’ is a compound formed from *kanoŋ ‘flesh, meat’, a genitive marker, and the word ‘eye’. As further support for their analysis they cite a number of compounds of similar semantic composition that use unrelated morphemes meaning ‘sprout’, ‘seed’, ‘fruit’, ‘egg’ and the like.

26649

*kantuk nod the head in drowsiness

3107

PWMP *kantuk nod the head in drowsiness [disjunct: *qantuk]

WMP
Tboli	kotuk	nod (the head)
Ngaju Dayak	kantok	sleep; exhaustion
Bahasa Indonesia	kantuk	sleepiness

31753

*kanúmay kind of ebony or persimmon tree with fruits that are pounded and used to stupefy fish: Diospyros spp.

9922

PPh *kanúmay kind of ebony or persimmon tree with fruits that are pounded and used to stupefy fish: Diospyros spp.

WMP
Ilokano	kanúmay	a tree: Diospyros multiflora
Isneg	kanúmay	a kind of ebony; its timber is used in the manufacture of pestles, shafts of spears and helves of axes and hatchets; its crushed fruits are used for poisonng fish
Hanunóo	kanúmay	a tree, possibly Diospyros maritima Blm.; the fruits are pounded and pulverized for use as a stupefier or poison for eels and shrimp
Sangir	kanume	a tree belonging to the Anacardiaceae with black outer bark and yellow inner bast; the base is poisonous and so is not used in burning lime: Semecarpus heterophylla

26650

*kanuqus squid, cuttlefish

3108

PWMP *kanuqus squid, cuttlefish [doublet: *aRud 'scrape, shave (as rattan)']

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kanós	squid, cuttlefish, Sepia sp.
Bikol	kanóʔos	squid
Maranao	kanoʔos	squid
Tiruray	kenuwes	squid
	kenuwes-on	a place where squids may be found, hence used to mean very far out to sea, over very deep water
Mapun	kanuus	squid
Yakan	kenuʔus	large variety of squid
Tausug	kanuus	a large squid
Balinese	kenus	cuttlefish, ink-fish

Note: Also Mongondow kandut ‘kind of cephalopod found in estuaries’, Totoli kanduus ‘squid’, Sasak kenaus ‘octopus, squid’. For further discussion, cf. Blust (1978:147).

30191

*kanus spittle; to spit (intr.)

7014

PEMP *kanus spittle; to spit (intr.) [doublet: *kanisu, *qanus₂]

OC
Mussau	kanusu	to spit
Gapapaiwa	kanu	to spit

7015

PEMP *kanus-i to spit (trans.)

SHWNG
Wandamen	kanisu ^<M	saliva
Serui-Laut	kunui ^<A	saliva
OC
Pak	kanuh	saliva
Motu	kanudi	to spit; spittle
	kanudi-a	to spit on

Note: Also Mbula kauzi ‘spit, spittle (white or red)’. This comparison, the essential core of which was first noted by Milke (1968), is problematic in several ways. First, the data leaves no real choice except to reconstruct doublets *kanus and *qanus. The first of these is attested only in Oceanic languages, yet an apparent suffixed form *kanus-i can be assigned to Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, forcing the conclusion that *kanus was also present in Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, even though direct evidence for this is absent. Second, a parallel problem arises with *qanus, where reflexes of the simple base are known only in Polynesian languages, but reflexes of the suffixed form have a wider distribution, implying that both *qanus and *qanus-i were found in POc, even though no direct evidence is known for the former.

26643

*kaNasay a fish: the mullet

3101

PAN *kaNasay a fish: the mullet

Formosan
Amis	keɫatsay	gray mullet

12526

PMP *kanasay a fish, the mullet

WMP
Yami	aknasay ^<M	kind of fish: mullet
Ivatan	aknasay	a fish: mullet
Mentawai	kanashai	kind of fish
Palauan	kəlát	kind of fish
CMP
Fordata	anaha	kind of fish
Proto-Aru	*kanasa	a fish: the mullet

12527

POC *kanase a fish, the mullet

OC
Lou	kanas	kind of fish
Loniu	kanas	kind of fish
Ahus	kanas	mullet
Southeast Ambrym	anas	mullet
Fijian	kanace	kind of fish
Tongan	kanahe	mullet

33865

*kaNawaS a small tree bearing round, green fruit: Ehretia spp.

12683

PAN *kaNawaS a small tree bearing round, green fruit: Ehretia spp.

Formosan
Paiwan	kalʸavas	a tree: Ehretia thyrsiflora
	kalʸawas-lʸawas-en	much Ehretia thyrsiflora

12684

PMP *kanawah a small tree bearing round, green fruit: Ehretia spp.

WMP
Tagalog	kanawa	a small tree: Ehretia acuminata (Madulid 2001:348)

31869

*kañu-kañu to shake, as a house in an earthquake

10076

POC *kañu-kañu to shake, as a house in an earthquake

OC
Roviana	kanu-kanu	to shake, as water in a vessel or bottle
Bugotu	kañu	to shake, of earthquake; to shake off
Nggela	kanu-kanu	to shake, as a bottle
	kanu-li	to shake and make rattle
Arosi	ʔonu-ʔonu	to shake, as tree in wind, house in earthquake
	ʔonu-hi	to shake (something)

Note: Also Bugotu añu ‘to shake, of earthquake’. Although this comparison contains languages that are generally assumed to belong to different primary branches of the Oceanic group (Ross 1988), they all are found within the Solomon islands archipelago, and the possibility that this is a loan distribution therefore cannot be completely ruled out.

30414

*kañul to shake, as the earth in an earthquake

7547

POC *kañul to shake, as the earth in an earthquake

OC
Manam	kanul-aki	to shake
Bugotu	kañu	to shake, of earthquake; to shake off
Vaturanga	ka-kanu	to shake

11798

POC *kañul-kañul to shake repeatedly

OC
Roviana	kanu-kanu	to shake, as water in a vessel or bottle
Nggela	kanu-kanu	to shake, as a bottle
	kanul-i	to shake and make rattle
'Āre'āre	anu-ia	to shake, move
Note: Roviana shows unexplained loss of the final consonant.

26693

*kaŋ animal sound

3153

PMP *kaŋ animal sound [doublet: *kaŋkaŋ 'resounding sound']

WMP
Isneg	kāŋ (length unexplained)	onom. for the chirping of aŋká insects (green insect that resembles, but is larger than the locust)
Kankanaey	kaŋ	clang, clank, clink
Maranao	kaŋ	owl (but see note to kekuŋ 'owl')
Iban	kaŋ	kind of frog
Sangir	manu kaŋ	seagull
Bare'e	kaa	long protracted sound of calling, singing or weeping
Tae'	kaŋ	bark of a dog
CMP
Manggarai	kaŋ	make a sound
	ŋ-kaŋ	to bark, of a dog
Rembong	kaŋ	sound of a dog in pain
Sika	kaŋ	a crow
OC
Motu	ka	to bang (of a moving thing)
Sa'a	kaa	bang, bash, fall with a bang

26688

*kaŋa be open, as the mouth

3148

PMP *kaŋa be open, as the mouth

WMP
Tboli	kaŋa	toothless; gaps, as when several teeth are missing
Ngaju Dayak	kaŋa	be open (mouth, shellfish)
CMP
Manggarai	kaŋa	be open (mouth)
OC
Nggela	kaŋa	drink by pouring down the throat (usual Melanesian method)

Note: With root *-ŋa(q) ‘gape, open the mouth wide’.

31773

*kaŋaRi tree with edible nut, the Canarium almond: Canarium commune

9943

POC *kaŋaRi tree with edible nut, the Canarium almond: Canarium commune [doublet: *kanari]

OC
Titan	aŋei	almond
Patpatar	ŋar	canarium almond: Canarium indicum
Kove	aŋahi	canarium almond
Manam	kaŋari	canarium almond
Gedaged	kaŋaz	the various species of the genus Canarium; also the mature seed, which is edible
Takia	aŋar	canarium almond
Nggela	ŋali	canarium almond
Mota	ŋai	canarium almond
Sakao	aŋa	Canarium almond
Raga	aŋai	native almond; kidney
Toak	ŋai	canarium almond
Nakanamanga	na-ŋai	canarium almond
Sye	n/aŋai	Canarium sp.
Anejom	na-ŋai	canarium almond

Note: This comparison was proposed in a fuller form by Ross (2008:315-316).

26689

*kaŋeqa fissured, slightly cracked

3149

PMP *kaŋeqa fissured, slightly cracked

WMP
Cebuano	kaŋʔa	slightly open, having come off, having a long crack
Beta	kaŋa	open
CMP
Manggarai	kaŋa	open, of the mouth

31104

*kaŋkaŋ₁ spread the legs wide

9078

PWMP *kaŋkaŋ₁ spread the legs wide

WMP
Bikol	mag-kaŋkáŋ	to walk with the legs spread apart; to walk with the arms out, as if something is tucked under the armpits
Aklanon	káŋkaŋ	to stretch or spread out one’s feet
Cebuano	kaŋkáŋ	for two or more things which are joined at the base to spread apart (as leaves of a book, legs wide open)
Malay	kaŋkaŋ	straddling wide
	buroŋ kaŋkaŋ katup	a long-legged, wide-striding waterbird
	mə-ŋaŋkaŋ	to walk with the legs wide apart, or with long strides
	tər-kaŋkaŋ	with legs flung wide apart --- of dead bodies on a battlefield; of a door, to be ajar at a wide angle
Karo Batak	kaŋkaŋ	to walk or sit with legs wide apart
Toba Batak	par-h<al>aŋkaŋ-an	space between the upper thighs, the crotch
Javanese	kaŋkaŋ	to sit with the legs spread apart; a certain large crab (from the way it holds its pincers wide apart?)
Pendau	ter-kaŋkaŋ	spreading open the legs or feet

Note: With root *-kaŋ₁ ‘spread apart, as the legs’.

31105

*kaŋkaŋ₂ resounding sound

9079

PAN *kaŋkaŋ₂ resounding sound

Formosan
Puyuma	kaŋkaŋ	noisy
WMP
Kankanaey	kaŋkáŋ	to ring; to cause to sound; to clank; to clang; striking a sonorous body
Ifugaw (Batad)	kaŋkáŋ	the whine of a dog in fear; to whine in fear (of a dog)
Ayta Abellan	k<ay>aŋkaŋ	crying or yelping of a dog
Tagalog	kaŋkáŋ	prolonged yelping of dogs, crying of babies or loud gossiping of people
Ngaju Dayak	kaŋkaŋ	repeated barking of a young dog
OC
Gedaged	kaŋkaŋ	the sound made by a ripe coconut (timber) when it is snapped with the finger
Gitua	kaŋkaŋ	kind of sound

Note: With (onomatopoetic) root *-kaŋ₂ ‘bark, croak’. Some of these forms may be products of convergence.

31106

*kaŋkaŋ₃ cramps, stiffening of the limbs, rigor mortis

9080

PMP *kaŋkaŋ₃ cramps, stiffening of the limbs, rigor mortis

WMP
Isneg	kaŋkáŋ	kind of cramp that affects the whole body, but more especially the fingers and toes, and ends in death; a spirit who causes the kaŋkáŋ cramp
Kayan	kakaŋ	stiffened (as the arms); rigid; in convulsions; cramps
Iban	te-kaŋkaŋ	stiff with cold, wet and chilled, terror-struck (as of someone paralyzed with fear of thunder); stiff (as the corpse of a dog)
Bare'e	kaŋkaŋ-i	stiff, rigid; stiffened
Muna	kaŋka	stiff (as one’s arms)
CMP
Manggarai	kaŋgaŋ	stiff (of a corpse); dead; dessicated (of the body, wood); stiff, of clothes that have been ironed

Note: Also Malay (Kedah) cekaŋ ‘taut, astretch’, Manggarai keŋgaŋ ‘stiff (of a corpse)’. The voiced onset of the second syllable of Manggarai kaŋgaŋ is unexplained. With root *-kaŋ₃ ‘stiff, rigid; cramps’.

31638

*kaŋkaŋ₄ kind of raptorial bird, eagle or hawk

9792

PWMP *kaŋkaŋ₄ kind of raptorial bird, eagle or hawk

WMP
Itbayaten	kaŋkaŋ	bird (general term)
Ibatan	kaŋkaŋ	eagle
Sasak	kaŋkaŋ	kind of sparrow-hawk

31969

*kao heron, probably Egretta sp.

10193

POC *kao heron, probably Egretta sp. [doublet: *kaopa]

OC
Yapese	k’aaw ~ k’ow	heron
Sursurunga	kau	taxon including Zebra heron and Nankeen night heron
Mengen (Poeng)	gao	reef heron
Takuu	kao	small thin wading bird resembling a heron
'Āre'āre	ao	the black heron
	ao eke	the white heron, egret

Note: A longer version of this comparison which contains a number of phonologically irregular forms was first proposed by Clark (2011:289)

31811

*kapak beat the wings, flap the wings; sound of flapping

10001

PMP *kapak beat the wings, flap the wings; sound of flapping

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kapak	beating, flapping of wings
Toba Batak	hapak-hapak	a clapper of bamboo used as a scarecrow
Sasak	kapak	beat the wings
Mori	moŋ-kapa-kapa	to flap the wings
	mo-kapa-kapa	flap the wings
CMP
Asilulu	kapak	sound of two slaps (or more)

10002

POC *kabak beat, flap the wings

OC
'Āre'āre	apa	wing
	apa-a	to flap the wings
Samoan	ʔapa	(of bird’s wing, turtle flipper, etc.) to beat, lash
Nukuoro	gaba	to flap (as wings)
Rarotongan	kapa	to flap, to flutter, as the wings of a bird; to palpitate, to move, as wings

10109

POC *kaba-kabak flap the wings repeatedly

OC
Sa'a	apa-apa	wing; shoulder
Tongan	kapa-kapa	side fin; to flap the wings
Niue	kapa-kapa	to flutter, to flap the wings (as a bird)
Samoan	ʔapa-ʔapa	fin; wing of an aircraft
Rennellese	kapa-kapa	flippers, as of turtle, stingray, whale; base of fish fins
Anuta	kapa-kapa	to flap wings
Rarotongan	kapa-kapa	to flap repeatedly, to flutter repeatedly, as the wings of birds
Maori	ka-kapa	to palpitate; to flutter, quiver
	kapa-kapa	wing

Note: With root *-pak₁ ‘slap, clap’.

31922

*kapal thick, as a plank

10137

PWMP *kapal thick, as a plank

WMP
Pangasinan	kapál	thickness; become thick
Kapampangan	kepal	thickness
	pa-kapal-an	make something thick
Tagalog	kapál	thickness; thick, the thickest part; legion, a great many; wealth, riches
Kadazan Dusun	kapa	thick (of flat things)
Bisaya (Limbang)	kapal	thick
Kelabit	kapal	thick
Sa'ban	apal	thick
Berawan (Long Terawan)	kapan	thick
Narum	hapal	thick
Sebop	kapan	thick
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kapan	thick
Penan (Long Labid)	kapan	thick
Murik	kapan	thick
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kapal	thick, of planks, etc.; having thick flesh around the seeds, of fruit
Kiput	kapan	thick
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Kekan)	kapan	thick
Bukat	kapan	thick, as a plank
Siang	kapan	thick
Katingan	ba-kapal	thick
Karo Batak	kapal	thick, of planks, etc.
	kapal-kapal	an oily plant with thick, leathery leaves
Toba Batak	hapal	thick, of things
	mar-hapal taŋan	a callused hand
Old Javanese	kapa-kapal-ən	callused, to develop calluses?
Javanese	kapal	callus; callused skin

10138

PWMP *ma-kapal thick, as a plank

WMP
Pangasinan	ma-kapál	thick
Kapampangan	ma-kapál	thick, wide
Bintulu	mə-kapan	thick
Ma'anyan	ma-kapan	thick

Note: Also Saisiyat (Taai) karpaL ‘thick (as paper)’.

31923

*kapaq-kapaq to grope, fumble about

10139

PPh *kapaq-kapaq to grope, fumble about

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kapa-kapá	to grope about (unable to see); to feel about (in the dark)
Tagalog	kapáʔ	groping
	ma-ŋapáʔ	to grope around
	pa-ŋa-ŋapáʔ	act of fishing by groping with the bare hands
	k<um>apáʔ	to search; to explore thoroughly in order to find something concealed
Bikol	mag-kapáʔ-kápaʔ	to flounder; to move clumsily and without proper balance
	kapáʔ-kapáʔ-on	to fumble, to muff

31831

*kapas kapas a marine fish, probably the silver bream

10027

PWMP *kapas kapas a marine fish, probably the silver bream

WMP
Ilokano	kapas kapas	kind of fish with bony meat
Malay	kapas kapas	a fish, silver bream: Gerres sp.

31657

*kápaw come to the surface

9813

PPh *kápaw come to the surface

WMP
Bontok	kápəw	to find something in water, as to fish out lumps of meat from broth
Kankanaey	kápew	drawing out of the water?
	kapéw-en	to draw out of the water
Cebuano	kápaw	come to the surface (as a shark fin breaking the surface of the water); rise up into something; for an emotion to show

31774

*kapay flutter the wings

9944

PMP *kapay flutter the wings

WMP
Pangasinan	kapáy	make a stroke in swimming
Tagalog	k<al>apáy	fin of a fish
Bikol	k<al>ápay	to row without making a sound
Aklanon	kápay	propeller (on ship); to propel, paddle (boat)
Cebuano	kapáy	pectoral fins on a fish; anything analogous that propels: wing, flipper; to swim, fly with flapping motions
	kapay-kápay	flap something repeatedly
Maranao	kapay	beckon with hand or fingers
Binukid	kapay	to beckon, summon by a wave of the hand
	kapay-kapay	to wave something back and forth
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kapey	to beckon for someone to come
Mansaka	kapay	to signal to by waving hand; to move hands back and forth
Tausug	kapay	a propeller (of a boat or ship)
	kapay-an	to provide a propeller (for a boat or ship)
Malay	kapay	fumbling with the hands, whether fondling, the movements of a drowning man, or the arm movements of a baby lying on its back; flutter, fluttering (of bird, butterfly; Echols and Shadily 1963)

9945

POC *kape₁ flutter the wings

OC
Arosi	kape	to flutter the wings
Nokuku	kave-	wing

Note: Also Arosi kapi ‘to flutter, flap wings’.

31970

*kape₂ crab taxon, probably a rock crab (Grapsidae)

10194

POC *kape₂ crab taxon, probably a rock crab (Grapsidae)

OC
Sengseng	kahe	crab
Mengen (Poeng)	kape	crab
Nggela	gave	a species of mottled crab on the reef
Toqabaqita	ʔafe	crab sp., the Flat crab: Percnon planissimum (?)
Mota	gave	several species of crab
Raga	gave	generic for marine and land crabs
Rotuman	ʔæhe	kind of reef crab, reddish with very flat back

Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (2011:175).

30436

*kapét hold onto, cling to

7585

PPh *kapét hold onto, cling to

WMP
Ilokano	kapét	to hold, cling to, stick, adhere
	kapt-an	to attach something to
	ka-kapt-an	a rail of stairs
Tagalog	kápit	hold, grasp; hand-hold
	k<um>ápit	to hold on; to cling to
	kapit-án	holder; handle; railing
Bikol	mag-kápot	to be stuck together; to be tightly wound around one another
Masbatenyo	mag-kapót	control, take charge
	maka-kapót	able to hang onto something
Waray-Waray	kapót	the act of holding; to hold; handle; grasp; grip
Hiligaynon	mag-kapút	to hold onto, to grasp, to clutch
Cebuano	káput ~ k<ul>áput	twine around something (as a squash plant that is entwining a papaya tree; cling to something (as a monkey clinging to a branch)
Maranao	kapet	hold; handle; keep; leech
	kapet-aʔ	hand rail
Tiruray	kafet	to cling, to attach oneself to something
Proto-Minahasan	*kampet	grip, clutch for support (e.g. railing)

7586

PPh *kapét-en cling to

WMP
Ilokano	kapt-en	to cling to; to transfer; infect (disease)
Maranao	kapet-en	leech-infested

Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat kápit ‘to hold, to grasp, to hook onto, to join on (as in tying one’s boat to another, or as in nailing a board to something; to influence; to adhere to; to take root’ (< Tagalog?). The close similarity of this form to PMP *kaput ‘tie or clasp together; to button’ sometimes makes it difficult to be sure whether a phonologically ambiguous form should be assigned to one reconstruction or the other. This applies mainly to Central Philippine languages, all of which appear to reflect *kapet rather than *kaput (note the stress contrast in Bikol mag-kapót ‘to hold in the hand’ < *kaput ‘tie or clasp together; to button’, next to mag-kápot ‘to be stuck together; to be tightly wound around one another’.

26691

*ka(m)pet plugged, stopped, blocked

3151

PMP *ka(m)pet plugged, stopped, blocked

WMP
Palauan	kaud	dam; end of menstruation
OC
Arosi	ʔapo	jam tight, be fixed firm, as cork in bottle, arm in cleft
	ʔapoh-i	close tight, block up

Note: With root *-pet ‘plugged or stopped up’.

31616

*kapika the Malay apple: Syzygium malaccense

9762

POC *kapika the Malay apple: Syzygium malaccense [doublet: *kapiku]

OC
Lou	keik	large variety of Malay apple: Syzygium gomata
Seimat	ahi	long type of Malay apple, red on the outside and white inside
Tami	kapig	rose apple, Syzygium malaccense
Nggela	gaviga	the Malay apple
Mota	gaviga	the Malay apple, Eugenia malaccensis
Wayan	kavika	tree taxon: Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae), Malay apple; stout tree common in garden areas, large drooping rounded leaves, red bushy flowers on clusters on branchlets and trunk, fist-sized white to red fruit with crisp insipid flesh; fruit of this tree
Fijian	kavika	tree and fruit of the Malay apple, Syzygium malaccense, Myrtaceae (red and white varieties)
Tongan	fekika ^<M	the Malay apple: Eugenia malaccensis, Myrtaceae; its bark is used medicinally
Niue	kafika	a tree: Eugenia inophylloides; also a name given to the stocks (an introduced method of punishment abandoned many years ago), because made of kafika timber
Rarotongan	kaɁika	the Malay apple: Eugenia malaccensis, an indigenous fruit tree which bears a beautiful purplish colored fruit, when fully ripe, which is very juicy and pleasant to eat

Note: This comparison was first proposed by Milke (1968); much fuller documentation is given in Ross (2008).

31617

*kapiku the Malay apple: Syzygium malaccense

9763

POC *kapiku the Malay apple: Syzygium malaccense [doublet: *kapika]

OC
Lou	kahew	long white Malay apple
Drehet	kehip	round, red Malay apple
Sori	apʷiw	kind of Malay apple that is round and white
Lindrou	kahew	kind of Malay apple with fruit shaped like a sheep bell
Mussau	kaviu	the Malay apple, Syzygium samarangense

31971

*kapin extra, surplus, in addition to

10195

PWMP *kapin extra, surplus, in addition to

WMP
Aklanon	kapín	more so, all the more, especially
Hiligaynon	kapín	more than, moreover, in addition
Cebuano	kapín	be in excess or extra; profit
Tausug	kapín	remainder, balance, leavings, remnant, ruins, leftovers (as food or clothes)
Makassarese	kampiŋ	extra work, second job, to "moonlight"

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance. This comparison was first proposed by Mills (1981:67).

26651

*kapis kind of shell

3109

PWMP *kapis kind of shell

WMP
Tagalog	kapís	shells obtained from certain mollusks (Placuna placenta) used for small window panes
Bikol	kápis	translucent shell from a species of oyster used in the making of shutter-like windows
Hanunóo	kapís	species of clam averaging the size of one's hand
Malay	kapis	scallop-shell, Pecten sp.

26652

*kapit fasten together by sewing or tying

8920

PAN *kapit fasten together by sewing or tying

Formosan
Kavalan	kapit	sew together accidentally, as the two legs of one’s pants
Pazeh	ka-kapit	a button
	mu-kapit	to button

3110

PMP *kapit pinch, press between; fasten thatch together with slats in roofing a house

WMP
Ilokano	kapit-en	to fold; to stack up
Kapampangan	kápit	together; type of banana that grows with the fruit bunched together
	kapít-an	be close to someone, especially to one in power
Tagalog	kápit	hold; grasp; hand-hold
	ma-ŋápit	to hug; to cling firmly or fondly to
	pa-kapít-in	to get someone to hold onto someone else or to something
	k<um>ápit	to hold on, cling to; to hand on, hold tight
	kapit-án	holder; handle; handlebar; railing
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kafit	sticking on (especially on a wall)
	kafit-kafit	someone holding onto another
Malay (Trengganu)	kapit	fasten with slats, as woven grass matting to a frame
Toba Batak	maŋ-hapit	pinch, press, squeeze
	tar-hapit	pressed tightly
	hapit-hapit	snap trap for mice and birds; warp beam (in weaving)
CMP
Buruese	kapi-h	pinch, squeeze, clamp; bind in a clamping manner (as thatch)
OC
Seimat	api-ti	to pinch
Motu	kahi	fix sticks to keep thatch or walls down; tighten by a wedge
Nggela	kapi	narrow, enclosed; to hold something tight, between arm and side; to clench; to catch in a trap
Arosi	ʔahi	put a broken limb into splints; splints
Tongan	kapi-kapi	to drive a wedge into; loincloth with flowers, etc. stuck into it for ornamentation; wedge
Niue	kapit-i	to pick up something with tongs
Rennellese	kapit-ia	to be caught, stuck, enmeshed, as a snake in a tight place; to be pressed close, as in a crowd

Note: The same as Dempwolff's (1934-38) *ka(m)pit ‘fasten together’, but note the more specific gloss suggested for the PMP form by this comparison. With root *-pit ‘press, squeeze together; narrow’.

26653

*kapkap feel in the dark, grope

3111

PAN *kapkap feel in the dark, grope

Formosan
Kavalan	k<m>apkap	to touch at random (as a cat’s belly, a woman’s breast); to grope for something in a bag, pocket
Amis	kapkap	reach out and feel with the hands for something you cannot see, grope
WMP
Ilokano	ag-kapkáp	to grope in the dark
	kapkap-án	to frisk
Casiguran Dumagat	kapkáp	to grope with the hands (as in the dark, or for snails in a muddy river)
Ibaloy	kapkap	to grope, feel for something with the hands without light and without seeing (as in a dark room, in one’s pockets for money, in walking along in the dark; this word has decided sexual connotations without proper context, since the word is used of intimate caressing; method of fishing and gathering shrimp and crabs , i.e. use of the bare hands
	man-kapkap	to grope for words
Pangasinan	kapkáp	to feel, touch with the palm of the hand
Tagalog	kapkáp	feeling or frisking (the pockets)
Bikol	kapkáp	grope for in the dark, feel for in the dark, fumble
Cebuano	kapkáp	grope for something; search a body for something; struggle to obtain something; sneak into a house with the intention of having intercourse with a girl
Tausug	ma-ŋapkap	grope for a woman in the dark (for illicit sexual intercourse)
Kenyah	ŋagap	grope in the dark
Penan (Long Labid)	lakaw kakap	grope, feel one’s way along in walking
Kayan	kakap	groping about, feeling about with the hands
Kiput	kakaap	to grope, feel blindly
Malay	gagap	groping, feeling one's way
Tae'	kakaʔ	to touch, feel, finger; also to have sexual relations with a woman

Note: Also Toba Batak man-dadap ‘to grop (as a blind person feeling his way by touch)’. With root *-kap ‘feel, grope’.

30333

(Formosan only)

*kapua silk cotton, kapok

7306

PAN *kapua silk cotton, kapok

Formosan
Kavalan	kpua	cotton
Pazeh	kapua	blanket, coverlet, quilt; sleeping mattress; cotton

Note: The glosses for both of these languages state that the material in question is ‘cotton’, but it is clear from the ethnobotany of Taiwan that *kapua refers to the fibers of the silk-cotton tree, Ceiba pentandra, a native species on the island. Although Chen (1988) does not touch on it, other sources state that kapok was traditionally used as a lining in woven materials to keep out the cold.

31924

*kapuk kapok; silk-cotton tree

10140

PWMP *kapuk kapok; silk-cotton tree

WMP
Itbayaten	kapok	a tree
Tagalog	kápok	kapok; the silky fibers from the seeds of the cotton tree used to fill pillows, mattresses, etc. (said to be from English)
Maranao	kapok	kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra L.
Mansaka	kapok	cotton tree (said to be from Tagalog)
Tiruray	kafuk	a silk cotton tree: Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaerlin
Mapun	kapuk	a cotton tree; cotton from the cotton tree
Tausug	kapuk	Ceiba pentandra Tree cotton, kapok
Ngaju Dayak	kapok	tree cotton, the coarser sort used to stuff pillows, etc., the finer sort which is used in spinning: kapas
Iban	kapok	silk cotton or kapok tree, Bombax sp., Ceiba pentandra
Malay	kapok	tree-cotton
	pohon kapok	cotton tree: Eriodendron anfractuosum
Old Javanese	kapuk	kapok
	a-ŋapuk	like kapok
Javanese	kapuk	kapok
Balinese	kapuk	the fibers of the seeds of the kutuh, called by us ‘kapok’
	kapuk-in	be stuffed with kapok
Sasak	kapuk	kapok

Note: The status of this reconstruction is open to question. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *kapuk ‘fibrous plant material, kapok’. However, most varieties of the silk-cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra) are said to be native to Mexico, Central America, northern South America, and parts of west Africa, rendering this reconstruction unlikely. Other sources state that the red silk cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) is indigenous to insular Southeast Asia, and since no source language has been identified for this morpheme it is assumed tentatively to be a native form. This is supported by Verheijen (1984:48), who states that “The kapok tree is an old cultigen, native of tropical Asia.”

30030

*kapuru soot

6726

POC *kapuru soot

OC
Roviana	kavuru	dust
Nggela	ko-kovuru	very black, as from smoke; soot, as on a tin or saucepan
	kou-kovuru	embers
Fijian	kavuru	crumbled, pounded, powdered; of a yam, very soft, because well-cooked

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance, as --- despite including it as a dictionary entry ---Capell (1968) gives Fijian kavuru as the passive of vuru-ka ‘to crush, crumble in the hands, pulverize’.

31847

*kapuR lime, calcium carbonate

10045

PMP *kapuR lime, calcium carbonate [disjunct: *qapuR]

WMP
Bukat	kapu	lime (calcium carbonate)
Iban	kapur	lime (burned shell or soft limestone), whitewash
Malay	kapur	camphor; chalk; lime; lime eaten with sireh-leaf
CMP
Seit	ʔaul	lime (for betel)
OC
Nauna	kəh	lime for betel chew
Lou	kop	lime for betel chew
Penchal	kɨp	lime for betel chew
Lenkau	kop	lime for betel chew
Takia	kau	lime for betel chew
Mbula	kou	lime powder made by heating up pieces of coral; it is chewed together with betel nut and betel pepper fruits or leaves

Note: All of the Oceanic forms cited here appear to be ambiguous for *qapuR or *kapuR.

33421

*kapus to run out of supplies, lack something needed

12125

PPh *kapus to run out of supplies, lack something needed

WMP
Ibaloy	kapos	that remaining to be completed of a piece of work (as harvesting rice, building a wall)
Ayta Abellan	kapoh	end (as of time, or supplies)
Hanunóo	kapús	end, last (in time)
	kapús-an	youngest child
Kalamian Tagbanwa	kapus	last child
Palawano	kapus	in need, short of money, insufficient
Cebuano	kapús	for something which cannot be replaced to be practically running out
Tboli	kafus	to lack, be deficient, needing; to run out of something before everyone has received some

Note: With root *-pus₁ ‘end, finish’.

26654

*kaput tie or clasp together; to button

3113

PMP *kaput₁ tie or clasp together; to button

WMP
Ifugaw	káput	string, rope, liana, thong to tie, fasten, bind one thing to another in order to keep either of the two or both in their right place. Thus the two posts of a ladder are said to be nikáput, if liana thongs running from one post to another under each of the rungs, prevent dislocation
Pangasinan	kapót	to close
Bikol	mag-kapót	to hold in the hand
Kayan	kaput	a tie; to tie up, to bind on
Sundanese	kaput	sewing
	tukaŋ ŋaput	tailor; seamstress
	pa-ŋaput-an	sewing basket
Balinese	kaput	fastened shut, of a chest; buttoned, of a jacket; closed, of the mouth, eyes
Makassarese	kapuʔ	fastened shut, of a chest; buttoned, of a jacket; closed, of the mouth, eyes
CMP
Rembong (Wue)	kaput	to tie
OC
Motu	ahu	closed (used in composition with verbs)

7582

PWMP *ma-ŋaput to clasp, tie together

WMP
Bikol	ma-ŋapót	to clasp, clutch, grasp, grip, cling to, latch onto, get ahold of
Sundanese	ŋaput	to sew
Balinese	ŋaput	wind round, wrap round
Uma	meŋ-kapuʔ	tie securely

7583

PWMP *kaput-an a clasp or button, fastening or closing device

WMP
Masbatenyo	kaput-án	hold onto something firmly
Ngaju Dayak	kaput-an	clasp or button with which one fastens a necklace, belt, etc.
Sundanese	kaput-an	seam, suture
Balinese	kaput-an	something wrapped up; parcel, package

Note: Mills (1981:73) proposes PAn *kaput ‘to close, cover’, but cites no Philippine cognates, and appears to confound at least two distinct cognate sets.

31925

*kapút to touch or hold

10141

PPh *kapút to touch or hold

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kapót	to touch, to feel, to handle with both hands (as in putting one’s hand on a person’s forehead to feel his fever)
Bikol	mag-kapót	to hold in the hand
	ka-kapt-án	handle

31660

*kápuy weakness, debility; feeble, unable to perform

9816

PPh *kápuy weakness, debility; feeble, unable to perform

WMP
Ilokano	kápuy	weakness
	na-kápuy	weak, fragile, slow
	k<um>ápuy	to become weak
Isneg	a-ŋápuy	a common creeping herb used in black magic to make or keep a person weak
	na-kápuy	weak, feeble, frail
Itawis	káfi	weakness
	na-káfi	weak
Ifugaw	kápuy	weakness, debility (applied to persons)
	k<um>ápuy	to become weak
Casiguran Dumagat	kapúy	to be weak, to be exhausted (due to extreme hunger); to be famished
Ibaloy	e-kapoy	weak, unable to do a certain job (as bulldozer to remove a boulder, man to do work, medicine to relieve pain)
	k<im>apoy	became weak
Pangasinan	kápoy	weakness, debility
Ayta Abellan	kapey	weak; slow
Bikol	maka-kápoy	to be wearying, tiring
Masbatenyo	kápoy	tired
	pa-ŋápoy	tiredness, weariness, fatigue
	kapúy-on	become tired, become worn out, become wearied, become exhausted, become fatigued
Agutaynen	kapoy-on	to be overcome, as by sleep or tiredness; become out of breath when doing something
Hiligaynon	kápuy	tiredness, exhaustion
	kapúy-un	to be tired, to be exhausted
Cebuano	kápuy	tired, weary, exhausted through exertion; something that is too much trouble, one who is too lazy to do
Mansaka	kapoy	to fail to do (as in failing to meet a commitment)

9817

PPh *ma-kápuy weak, feeble, unable to perform

WMP
Pangasinan	ma-kápoy	weak, ineffectual, inferior, in poor condition
Bikol	ma-kápoy	to feel weak, weary, tired

30047

*kapwa belly

6747

POC *kapwa belly

OC
Gitua	apwa-	belly; pregnant
Sa'a	apwa-	belly

Note: Also Sa'a opwa- ‘belly, bowels, stomach’. It is unclear how this form differed in meaning from POc *tian ‘belly’.

26655

*kaq(e)pi brace, splint

3114

PMP *kaq(e)pi brace, splint [disjunct: *kapit]

WMP
Chamorro	haʔfe	brace, put on splint
OC
Arosi	ʔahi	put a broken limb into splints; splint

31668

*kaqiŋ kind of large openwork basket

9825

PPh *kaqiŋ kind of large openwork basket

WMP
Ilokano	káiŋ	large openwork basket
	i-káiŋ	to place in the káiŋ basket
Tagalog	kaíŋ	basket of woven bamboo with wide mouth and two opposite handles, generally used for fruit
Bikol	kaʔíŋ	bushel basket, made of woven bamboo and having a large mouth with handles located on either side
Cebuano	kaíŋ	large, cylindrical, rattan basket loosely woven in a hexagonal design, 3’ tall by 2’ across; make into a kaiŋ

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.

31608

*kaqis scratch up the ground, as chickens

9751

PWMP *kaqis scratch up the ground, as chickens

WMP
Bontok	káis	to scrape off the rough outer surface of bamboo
Kankanaey	káis	to clean; to remove, to clear away dirt from (a ditch, etc.)
Malay	kais	to draw the claws towards the body, esp. of the ways fowls scratch up their food; also of a crow scratching up sesame seed, and of fights with claws
Toba Batak	maŋ-hais	scratch up the ground, of fowls; to scratch, of dogs
Proto-Minahasan	*kaɁis	scrape off, scratch away; make streaks
Mongondow	kaɁit	sweep with a sago palm leaf; scratch up the ground, of fowls

9752

PWMP *kais-an to scratch up the ground, as chickens

WMP
Kankanaey	kaís-an	to clean; to remove, to clear away dirt from (a ditch, etc.)
Malay	kais-an ayam	descriptive of the way fowls scratch up their food

31812

*kaqit to hold or pull with a hook

10003

PMP *kaqit to hold or pull with a hook

WMP
Romblomanon	kahit	a fish-trap hook
Iban	kait	hook
Malay	kait	to hook on to; crook-shaped; crook; of putting bait on a hook; a man caught on thorns in the jungle; a lamb in a tiger’s talons; the little finger bent hook-wise
Mongondow	kait	to knit; to hook
OC
Tolai	kait	to catch, as one’s self or clothes on a thorn or hook; to prick; barb, thorn
	kait-e	to catch, as thorns in clothes, etc.

Note: Also Tetun kaɁit ‘to hold or pull with a hook’. Apparently distinct from *kawit ‘hook’.

33392

*kara tortoise shell (?)

12039

PPh *kara tortoise shell (?)

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kára	a species of sea turtle (the eggs are gathered for food, but the meat is not edible)
Bikol	kára	tortoise shell

31973

*karagwam seaweed, seagrass

10197

POC *karagwam seaweed, seagrass

OC
Patpatar	karaguo	seaweed
Motu	alaga	seaweed-like grass, Fucus sp.
Molima	kalagoma	a seaweed
Lau	ʔalaga	seaweed
Toqabaqita	ʔalaga	species of seaweed
Arosi	ʔaraga	a seaweed; it appears when the yams are planted and grows with them, coming to maturity when they do

Note: Also Tawala yalegwama ‘seaweed type, brown’. A somewhat longer version of this comparison with several phonologically non-corresponding forms was proposed by Ross (2008d:131), who noted that the reconstruction of POc *gw is problematic.

32014

*karak₁ strong southeast trade wind

10242

POC *karak₁ strong southeast trade wind

OC
Lukep (Pono)	karak-a	southeast trade
Takia	karag-arag	a light southeast wind which appears as part of the initial development of the southeast trade in April
Longgu	ara	a cool, pleasant wind from the southeast
Kwaio	ala	southeast wind
Lau	āra	southeast trades, violent wind
Toqabaqita	ara	a fairly strong wind, comes from April to September

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2003:133-134).

32015

*karak₂ ringworm

10243

POC *karak₂ ringworm

OC
Sursurunga	kar-kar	ringworm
Lakalai	la-kara-kobe	tinea, ringworm; fish scales
Hote	kalak	ringworm
Tami	gala-gal	ringworm
Wayan	kara	disease, possibly a type of ringworm, in which pale spots appear on the skin (attributed by some to bathing in dirty water)
Fijian	kara	a kind of ringworm, tinea circinata

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond (2016:347-348).

31658

*kara-karawa blue-green

9814

POC *kara-karawa blue-green

OC
Seimat	axaxaw-an	blue
Puluwat	yaŕawaŕaw	various shades of light green (as grass or the wura parrot fish) or of light blue (as European eyes or the sky)
Sonsorol-Tobi	xalawalawa	blue
Fijian	karakarawa	blue, green, of color
	sa karawa na sē-ni-cō	evening shades after sunset

Note: Also Lau maragwa ~ marakwa ‘light green or blue’, Arosi marawa ‘green, blue (if bright)’, ARE marawa ‘green, unripe’, POc *ta-dawa ‘green’ (Grace 1969). Although all of these forms are clearly related, a specific reconstruction is hard to pin down. The common element is *rawa, but this rarely occurs alone or in combinations that would allow it to be extracted as a morpheme. Rather the reconstruction appears to have been a reduplicated form of *karawa, but whether the reduplication was leftward, as in Fijian kara-karawa, or rightward, as in Sonsorol-Tobi xalawa-lawa, varies from one witness to the next. To further complicate matters Admiralty and Papuan Tip languages support what appears to be a doublet *karawina, since no known morphological process would allow us to derive this form from *karawa.

30045

*karamea tongue

6744

POC *karamea tongue

OC
Lou	karme-	tongue
Nali	kalame-	tongue
Tolai	karamea	tongue
Vaghua	kalamea	tongue
Mota	garamea-	tongue
Canala	kurumɛ	tongue

Note: Also Tigak kalama ‘tongue’. Many languages in the Solomons and Vanuatu reflect only the last two syllables of this form, as with Roviana, Toqabaqita, Bauro mea-, Raga mea-, Maskelynes na mea-, Uripiv ne-me- ‘tongue’. It is unclear whether reflexes of the shorter form are products of historically independent shortening of *karamea, or reflect PCEMP *maya ‘tongue’.

31876

*karani near

10083

POC *karani near [doublet: *karaŋi]

OC
Bugotu	garani	near, near to
Proto-Micronesian	*karani	near, close
Gilbertese	kaan	near, not far from, close to (in time or space)
Pohnpeian	kɛrɛn	near, close
Wailengi	ŋga-ŋgarani	near

31870

*karanzaŋ rattan basket used to carry garden produce, etc.

10077

PWMP *karanzaŋ rattan basket used to carry garden produce, etc.

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	karanjaŋ	a quarangular basket woven of rattan and used to transport fruit
Malay	kəranjaŋ	basket, hamper or crate of coarse wickerwork, used for packing and storing provisions, carrying fish to market, etc.
Toba Batak	haranjaŋ	woven basket used to carry tobacco leaves
Tontemboan	karaja	basket with wide opening woven of rattan and used to wash coffee and transport leafy vegetables and corn
Bare'e	karanda	round carrying basket made of rattan
Tae'	karandaŋ	carrying basket made of bamboo, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, used to transport bundles of rice
	pe-karandaŋ	put in a carrying basket

31871

*karaŋ coral, limestone

10078

PMP *karaŋ coral, limestone

WMP
Malagasy	hárana	a rock, a rocky prominence, hill or mountain; also used for shells, coral, coral reefs, etc.
Malay	karaŋ	coral reef, in contrast to ridge of rocks; edible shellfish picked up on reefs when the tide is out; also used descriptively of fish that haunt coral reefs
	batu karaŋ	coral rock
	buŋa karaŋ	sponge
Toba Batak	haraŋ	coral; volcanic tuff; cliff; reef
	tar-haraŋ	run aground on a reef
Nias	kara	stone, coral
Old Javanese	karaŋ	coral, coral rock, coral reef; probably also more general: any rock (in the sea or on the sea shore)
	watu karaŋ	coral, coral stone, rock
	ma-karaŋ	with coral; with rocks
Javanese	karaŋ	coral; coral reef
Proto-South Sulawesi	*karaŋ	coral
Makassarese	karaŋ	coral
	batu karaŋ	coral rock
CMP
Sika	karaŋ	coral, from which the people make black armbands

Note: Some of the forms cited here may be loanwords from Malay, but this seems unlikely in every case, since many of the speakers of these languages are in contact with the sea, and would have no reason to borrow a word for a feature of the physical environment with which they are intimately familiar. This is particularly true of Sika karaŋ, since the material reportedly was used to make armbands that were part of the traditional culture.

This word is in competition with the more widely-distributed PMP *sakaRu ‘coral reef’, and it remains unclear what difference of meaning might have distinguished them. One possibility is that *sakaRu referred to the structure and *karaŋ to the material, since reflexes of *batu karaŋ ‘coral stone’ are found in several languages, but a reflex of *batu with *sakaRu is unknown. Dempwolff included Tongan fatu-kala ‘stone, a variety of makahunu (a hard black stone used in native ovens and in grinding kava)’, and Samoan Ɂalā ‘kind of heavy, smooth volcanic stone (lightly pitted)’, but there is little reason to believe that these are anything more than chance resemblances.

31877

*karaŋi near

10084

POC *karaŋi near [doublet: *karani]

OC
Mussau	kala-kalaŋi-na	near
Nggela	garaŋi	near, be near
Talise	garaŋi	near

Note: A somewhat longer form of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2003c:200-201).

31751

*karasi to scrape off, peel off

9920

POC *karasi to scrape off, peel off

OC
Mussau	kalasi	to peel, as yams
'Āre'āre	ʔarasi-a	to scrape, polish, of wooden articles such as combs, bows; to sharpen, point a stick; grate coconuts
Arosi	karasi	to scrape, bruise, take off skin

Note: Also Tolai kalat ‘to peel, esp. fruit’.

31813

*karat₁ rust

10004

PWMP *karat₁ rust

WMP
Agutaynen	kalat-en	for something to rust, become rusty
Palawan Batak	karat	rusty
Malay	karat	rust; (fig.) corruption; deterioration
	karat gigi	tartar (on teeth)
Karo Batak	karat-karat-en	to rust; rusty
Balinese	karat	rust (refined speech)

Note: For a careful discussion of this and other terms related to iron cf. Blust (2013).

31974

*karat₂ a small stinging plant, perhaps Laportea interrupta

10198

POC *karat₂ a small stinging plant, perhaps Laportea interrupta

OC
Tolai	kara	stinging nettle species: Dendrocnide sessiflora, Laportea interrupta
Kove	gala	a stinging plant related to latoDendrocnide latifolia)
Tape	nə-xārət	stinging nettle
V'ënen Taut	n-harət	stinging nettle
Namakir	kar	nettle tree
Nakanamanga	na-kara	nettle tree

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Chowning (2001:83), and again by Ross (2008e:233). The reconstruction of the final consonant in this form is critically dependent on witnesses for which the historical phonology is still very poorly known.

31659

*karawina blue-green

9815

POC *karawina blue-green [doublet: *kara-karawa]

OC
Lou	arawin	blue-green
Titan	karowin	blue-green
Dobuan	kara-karawina	blue

Note: Also Ahus aroan ‘blue-green’, Likum ñarawin ‘blue-green’, Lindrou ñarawin ‘blue’, ñorowon ‘green’.

33878

*karáy plastron, turtle shell

12698

PPh *karáy plastron, turtle shell

WMP
Ilokano	karáy	plastron, turtle shell
Bikol	karáy	breastplate made of bone

26659

*karis to scratch, scrape

3118

PMP *karis₁ scratch, scrape

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kahes	bark of the sugarcane stalk; to shave the bark off a stalk of sugarcane with a bolo
Bikol	mag-káris	to shave hair with a razor or knife; to shave the head or face
Kayan	karih	earth or other substances disturbed by scratching (as by chickens)
	pe-karih	to scratch about in earth (as chickens scratching for food)
Malay	garis	scratch, abrasion; of scratches on the skin; also of striking a match
Proto-Minahasan	*karis	stripe, streak, scratch
CMP
Manggarai	karis	scratch mark

10024

POC *kari to scratch, scrape

OC
Tolai	kar	to scratch
Kove	kari-si	to scrape, scratch
Nggela	kari	to scrape off, as dirt, blood from a cut
	kari-kari	to scratch on the path, as a brush turkey
	kari-si	to peel off skin or stem of a plant, or stick; to circumcize
Wayan	kari	be scraped, scratched with a scraper
Fijian	kari	to scrape, chiefly of coconut

Note: With root *-ris₂ ‘scratch a line’.

26661

*karkar scratch up the earth, as a fowl

3120

PAN *karkar scratch up the earth, as a fowl

Formosan
Amis	karkar	dig in the soil
WMP
Tagalog	kalkál	scratching or scraping off with the fingernails; scraped or scratched off
Maranao	karkar	dig into earth
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	karkar	to dig or remove earth with a scratching motion of the hands
Proto-Minahasan	*karkar	scratch, dig out (as a fowl scratching up the ground)
OC
Gedaged	kakazi ~ kekazi	break the earth with a stick, delve, dig up

7697

POC *kakar-i to scratch up the earth, as a fowl

OC
Tolai	kar	to scratch
Nggela	kakar-i	to eat away land, of waves
	kar-i	to scrape off, as dirt, blood from a cut; to scrape out white of coconut; to scale a fish
Fijian	kar-i	to scrape, chiefly of coconut

Note: Also Paiwan kakar-an ‘harrow’, Kayan (Uma Juman) kar ‘to scratch up (as a chicken scratching up the ground in search of food’, Ujir kar ‘scratching up, as a chicken scratching up the soil’.

31672

*karus to scratch, scrape

9829

PAN *karus to scratch, scrape [doublet: *kerus]

Formosan
Paiwan	karut	rake
WMP
Ilokano	kárus	scraper
	i-kárus	to scrape; (fig.) to insist
	karús-an	to card (maguey fibers)
	karús-en	to scrape, level with a strickle
Kankanaey	kalús-an	to scrape
Bikol	mag-káros	to grate or scrape
Maranao	karos	to scratch
	mia-karos	be scratched (as by a cat)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	karus	to scratch someone with the fingernails or claws
Wolio	karu	scratching or scraping sound
	karu-si	to scratch, scrape, scratch out, rake out, scrape clean

26665

*karut₁ scrape, rasp

3124

PAN *karut₁ scrape, rasp

Formosan
Amis	karot	rake the muddy fields with a buffalo; rake rubbish
WMP
Isneg	kárut	sharpen the edge of a tool by means of another blade
Ifugaw (Batad)	kalut	for someone to dig or scrape something from something else with the hands, paws, or suitable instrument, as to scrape food remains from a container; for a dog to dig a hole
Cebuano	kalút	scratch an itch
Malay	karut	rasp
Proto-Minahasan	*karut	scrape out, scratch out

12503

POC *kadrut to scratch an itch

OC
Seimat	axut-i	to scratch
Sesake	karut-i	to scratch
Fijian	kadru	to scratch
	kadru-ta	to scratch something

31878

*karut₂ coconut growth stage 6: green drinking coconut

10085

POC *karut₂ coconut growth stage 6: green drinking coconut

OC
Hula	kalu	half-ripened coconut
Motu	karu	a young coconut; unformed, unripe
Petats	ka-karut	coconut containing liquid before flesh appears
Longgu	ʔaru	a coconut ready to drink and eat
Toqabaqita	qaru	[gloss]
'Āre'āre	aru	a green coconut, good for drinking

Note: Also 'Āre'āre aro ‘a green coconut, good for drinking’. A slightly longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross and Evans (2008:363), who also list 'Āre'āre aru ‘green drinking coconut’, although Geerts (1970) actually gives the phonologically incompatible aro ‘a green coconut, good for drinking’.

31754

*kaRa member of the parrot family

9923

PEMP *kaRa member of the parrot family

SHWNG
Ansus	kara	cockatoo
Ambai	kara	cockatoo

9924

POC *kaRa male Eclectus Parrot: Eclectus roratus

OC
Lusi	kara	parrot
Kove	kaha	parrot
Halia	kala-kala	Eclectus Parrot
Roviana	kara	the general name for parrots
Kwaio	a-ʔala	male of king parrot (Larius roratus), female is ɁufoɁufo (sexual dimorphism is extreme in this species)
'Āre'āre	ara	large green parrot, red under the wings
Arosi	kara	parrot
Wayan	ka-kā	(obsolescent) a bird, possibly the Collared Lory, Phygis solitarius, which informants say was present on Waya a generation ago but is no longer there
Fijian	kā	parrot
	ka-kā	several species of parrot: Prospeia splendens
Tongan	ka-kā	parrot

Note: Also Proto-Admiralty *kareŋV ‘red parrot’. The Oceanic part of this comparison was first presented in print by Clark (2011:321-322).

30494

*kaRaC to bite

7712

PAN *kaRaC to bite

Formosan
Kavalan	qaRat	to bite
Amis	mi-kalat	to bite; to be burned, as by the sun; to have an allergic reaction
Proto-Rukai	*kaʔacə	to bite
Puyuma	karaT	to nibble, bite (insect)
Paiwan	kats	bite

7713

PMP *kaRat to bite

WMP
Ifugaw	kalát	to bite; mostly applied to dogs, seldom to human persons, e.g. when someone bites in a fruit
Casiguran Dumagat	məg-kaget	to bite
Tagalog	kagát	a bite; sting, a prick or wound by a bee
	kagat-án	to bite a piece off something
Bikol	kagát	a bite
	ma-kagát	to get bitten
	mag-kagát	to bite
	ma-ŋagát	to go around biting (as a mad dog)
Masbatenyo	kagát	to bite, sting, pinch (also refers to the pinch of a crab)
Inati	kadat	to bite
Aklanon	kagát	claw, pincher (of crab)
Waray-Waray	kagát	the act of biting
Hiligaynon	mag-kagát	to bite, to snap, to catch between the teeth
Cebuano	kagát	bite to inflict injury; grab or hold something; catch, snag so as to hold firmly
	k<um>agát	ready to bite at the least provocation
	kagt-án	adult freshwater shrimp with well-developed pincers
Maranao	kagat	itch; scratch
Binukid	kagat	to bite (something or someone)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kaγat	of any toothed creature, to bite
Mansaka	kagat	to bite, to sting
Malay	ber-karat	fighting with tooth and claw
Karo Batak (Kembaren)	ŋ-karat	to bite
	ŋ-harat-i	to bite on something
Toba Batak	maŋ-harat	to bite
	maŋ-harat-i	to bite to pieces
Ponosakan	kahat	to bite
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kaRa	to bite
Moronene	moŋ-kea	to bite
Muna	sia	bite into (as in biting into a banana)
	siat-i	to bite many items/many times
Popalia	kaha	to bite
CMP
Rotinese	ka	to bite, to chew with the teeth
Yamdena	n-karat	to bite
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)	kara	to bite
Bobot	kasat	to bite
Masiwang	kat	to bite
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	na-ʔarat	to bite, nibble
OC
Tigak	kagat	to bite
Nalik	kərət	to bite
Tabar	arat-ia	to bite
Tolai	karat	to bite
Lakalai	ala	to bite a thing or animal; by extension, to catch a pig, of a dog or a man hunting with dogs
Pokau	ara-ra	to bite
Piva	kanata	to bite
Mono-Alu	ʔa-ʔata	to bite
Lungga	γarata	to bite
Roviana	garata	to bite
Sa'a	ala	to bite, sting, be sharp-edged
Santa Ana	γara	to bite

7714

PWMP *ma-ŋaRat to bite

WMP
Ifugaw	ma-ŋalát	to bite
Karo Batak	ŋ-karat	to bite
Toba Batak	maŋ-harat	to bite
Mongondow	mo-ŋarat	to bite, to gnaw, of mice, worms, etc.

7715

PPh *kaRat-en to be bitten

WMP
Isneg	kaxat-án	to bite
Tagalog	kagat-ín	to bite; to seize, cut into or cut off with the teeth
Bikol	kagat-ón	to bite
Hanunóo	kagt-ún	be bitten

7716

PAN *kaRaC-i bite (imperative)

Formosan
Kavalan	qaRat-i	bite (imper.)

7717

POC *kaRati to bite

OC
Vitu	harati	to bite
Wampar	ar	to bite
Gabadi	arasi	bite
Saliba	kalas-i	to bite
Sudest	gharȉ-gharȉ	to bite
Uruava	karasi	to bite
Torau	karat-ia	to bite
Mono-Alu	ʔa-ʔati	to bite
Roviana	garat-ia	to bite (trans.)
Nggela	galati	to bite; to hold between the teeth
Talise	γalat-ia	to bite
'Āre'āre	ara-ia	to bite
Nokuku	keti-a	to bite
Lingarak	-xas	to bite
Fijian	kati	to bite
	kati-a	to bite (trans.)
Samoan	ʔati	to bite; to get into, attack (said of pests, as termites attacking a tree)
Nukuoro	gadi	bite
	gadi-gadi	itch
Rarotongan	kati	to bite; to hold or engage, as something that has been fastened to another thing and it does not slip loose; to seize or tear with the teeth
Maori	kati	bite, nip; trap for rats; nip, squeeze
	ka-kati	sting, bite; eat, gnaw; be clenched, as the teeth; intense; keen, acrid, sour
Hawaiian	ʔaki	to take a nip and let go; to nibble, as fish; to bite off the bark of sugarcane; to heal, as a wound; to scar over; sharp recurring pain, as in head or stomach

7718

PAN *ma-kaRaC to be bitten

Formosan
Paiwan	ma-kats	be(come) bitten

7719

PMP *ma-kaRat to be bitten

WMP
Tagalog	má-kagát	to be bitten, to be stung

7720

PAN *k<um>aRaC to bite

Formosan
Kavalan	q<m>aRat	to bite; to hold between the teeth; acrid, itchy taste of taro
Saisiyat	k<om>aLas	to bite
Atayal	k<m>at	to bite
Sakizaya	mu-kalat ^<M	to bite
Bunun	kalat	to bite (as an animal biting a person)
Tsou	borcə	to bite
Saaroa	um-a-aracə	to bite
Puyuma	k<əm>araT	to bite (as in a dog biting a person)
Paiwan	k<m>ats	to bite

7721

PMP *k<um>aRat to bite

WMP
Agta (Dupaningan)	k<um>aget	to bite
Isneg	k<um>axāt	to bite
Ifugaw	k<um>alát	will bite
Casiguran Dumagat	k<um>aget	big enough to bite (subject must be non-human)
Tagalog	k<um>agát	to bite; to seize, cut into or cut off with the teeth

7722

PAN *k<in>aRaC-an the bite of an animal

Formosan
Kavalan	q<n>aRat-an	the bite (of a dog, etc.)
Atayal	k<n>at-an	a bite (dog, snake, etc.)

31701

*kaRadkad sound of grinding or grating

9867

PPh *kaRadkad sound of grinding or grating

WMP
Ilokano	karadákad	sound of walking over gravel
Mansaka	kagadkad	to make a grating sound (as a cart )

32016

*kaRaka to crawl

10244

POC *kaRaka to crawl

OC
Mussau	kalaa	to crawl
Bola	karaka	to crawl
Takia	karak	to creep, crawl
Tamambo	haraha	to crawl (of child)
Efate (North)	karaka	walk bent over, hands supporting body (indicates child will soon walk properly)

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2016:396-397).

26656

*kaRakap crab sp.

3115

PMP *kaRakap crab sp.

WMP
Sangir	kahakaʔ	crab
Palauan	kəsáko	land crab
Chamorro	hagahaf	rock crab: Crapsus tenuicrustatus Herbst
OC
Gedaged	kazag	a crab
Wayan	ka-kaka	kind of land crab
Fijian (Eastern)	ŋgaka	mangrove crab

Note: This comparison (less the Sangir cognate) was first noted in print by Geraghty (n.d.) who, however, supplies only a POc reconstruction.

31661

*kaRaskas rustling sound

9818

PPh *kaRaskas rustling sound

WMP
Ilokano	karasákas	rustling sound; shuffling sound of feet on floor; crumpling sound
	ag-karasákas	to make a rustling sound
Bontok	kalasákas	to produce a rushing, rustling or rattling noise, as the sound of water rushing down a cliff, stones rattling down a slide, the sound made when pushing against the leaves of plants or through tall grass
	kalaskas	to push one’s way through bushes, to find one’s way through brush
Cebuano	kagaskás	rustling sound; to rustle (as dry leaves in the wind)
Mansaka	kagaskas	to make a rustling sound

Note: The occasional insertion of a vowel between the consonants of a reduplicated monosyllable, and even the stressing of that inserted vowel has parallels in other forms, as in Ilokano dapádap < PWMP *dapdap₂ ‘to grope’. Note that Bontok has both variants.

30495

*kaRaw₁ to scratch an itch

7723

PAN *kaRaw₁ to scratch an itch

Formosan
Kavalan	qaRaw	to scratch (with fingernails)
Pazeh	ka-kaxaw	to scratch
Bunun (Takituduh)	ma-kalav	to scratch an itch
WMP
Bikol	kágaw	to scratch a part of the body (as to relieve an itch)
Kelabit	karo	the act of scratching (an itch)
	ŋaro	to scratch an itch
Cham (Eastern)	karaw	scratch an itch
Sangir	me-kaho	to scratch an itch
Balaesang	ka-kao	scratch (an itch, the body)
Bonerate	kaho	to scratch
Popalia	kaho	to scratch
CMP
Bimanese	kao	to scratch (as when itchy)
Komodo	hao	to scratch
Sika	garo	to scratch
Kédang	karo	to scratch
Helong	kalo	to scratch

12578

POC *kaRo to scratch

OC
Mussau	kalo-kalo-a	to scratch
Tolai	kar	to scratch
Kove	kaho	to scratch
Motu	γa-γaro-a	to scratch
Selau	karo	to scratch
Kokota	γaro	to scratch
Lungga	γaro	to scratch
Arosi	ʔaro	to itch; to scratch
Santa Ana	γa-γaro	to scratch
Ngwatua	karo-a	to scratch
Vartavo	kar-karo	to scratch
Rotuman	ʔao	to scratch, scrape; to scrape or rake together (ashes, rubbish, etc.); to scrape off, scrape or scratch up, etc.

7724

PAN *k<um>aRaw to scratch an itch

Formosan
Kavalan	q<m>aRaw	to scratch (with fingernails)
Saisiyat (Tungho)	k<om>a:-kaaw	to scratch (with fingernails)
Pazeh	mu-kaxaw	to scratch (oneself)

Note: Also Thao kulhaw ‘to scratch, as an itchy place’, ka-kulhaw ‘rake or harrow used in agriculture; back-scratcher’, Ilokano kágaw ‘germ; itch mite’, Toba Batak hao ‘scratch (an itch) with one’s hand’.

31700

*kaRaw₂ chicken flea, itch mite

9866

PWMP *kaRaw₂ chicken flea, itch mite

WMP
Itbayaten	kayaw	chicken flea
Ilokano	kágaw	germ; itch mite
Isneg	káxaw	the itch mite
Bontok	kagəw	chicken louse
Kankanaey	kágew	itch mite
Tagalog	kágaw	a mite or very small insect that causes itch
Bikol	mag-kágaw	to scratch a part of the body (as to relieve an itch)
Masbatenyo	kágaw	germ, microbe, bug, bacteria, virus
Waray-Waray	kágaw	microbe, germ
Hiligaynon	kágaw	germ, microbe
Cebuano	kágaw	germs; be contaminated with germs
Maranao	kagaw	germs
Binukid	kagaw	germs
Mansaka	kagaw	germs
Tausug	kagaw	small vermin found in sores, germs, microbes
Rungus Dusun	kahaw	chicken lice
Minokok	kaaw	chicken lice

Note: Apparently distinct from PAn *kaRaw₁ ‘to scratch’. For reasons that remain unclear Ilokano, Bontok and Kankanaey all show what Conant (1911) called ‘the stereotyped g’ as a reflex of *R.

30031

*kaRem capsize, of a boat; sink

6727

PWMP *kaRem capsize, of a boat; sink

WMP
Maranao	kagem	immerse; capsize; waterlogged, as a boat that has capsized
Ida'an Begak	kagom	sink
Lun Dayeh	karem	capsizing
Kelabit	karem	capsize, of a boat
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kaam	capsize, of a canoe
Kayan	kahem	foundered, of a boat, capsized; collapsed, of house or structure
Kayan (Busang)	kaham	meet with an accident, go aground, sink; specifically: suffer a shipwreck
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kahəm	collapse, as an old house or fieldhut; capsize, as a boat
Ngaju Dayak	kahem	sink, be demolished, be spoiled or destroyed
Iban	karam	awash, capsized, wrecked, foundered (strictly, karam applies to boats or anything that floats, and means full of, or covered with water so as to be unmanageable)
Malay	karam	to founder, be engulfed, of ships being wrecked; (fig.) of disaster generally
Acehnese	karam	suffer an accident, sink, shipwreck
Gayō	karam	capsize, sink; ruin, spoil; chaotic
	mu-karam	capsize, sink
Simalur	karəm	annihilate, destroy
Toba Batak	harom	capsize, of boats, go down, sink; symbolically used for terrible misfortune
Madurese	karem	founder, be engulfed, of ships
Sasak	karem	to sink

6728

PWMP *ma-ŋaRem to sink something; to destroy

WMP
Lun Dayeh	ŋarem	cause a boat to capsize
Ngaju Dayak	ma-ŋahem	to sink or capsize something; to despoil; destroy, demolish
Simalur	ma-ŋarəm	annihilate, destroy
	ma-ŋarəm-kən	destroy something
Toba Batak	maŋ-harom-hon	annihilate, destroy

Note: Also Karo Batak karam ‘meet with an accident; to perish, of a ship’, Sundanese kalem ‘sink, disappear under water’, Old Javanese karem ‘submerge, sink, drown’, Javanese kèlem ~ kèrem ‘sink, become submerged, of a ship’, Balinese keleb ‘sink, go under (in water)’ ~ kelem ‘sink, go under, drown’.

31727

*kaReteŋ marine fish: sea perch

9894

PWMP *kaReteŋ marine fish: sea perch

WMP
Ilokano	kagtéŋ	kind of striped marine fish larger than the birút (kind of freshwater fish, Eleotris melanosoma)
Malay	kərtaŋ	a fish, the perch: Epinephelus pantherinus

Note: Also Bikol kugtóŋ ‘kind of large saltwater fish’.

31640

*kaRi₁ word, speech, language

9794

PAN *kaRi₁ word, speech, language

Formosan
Saisiyat	kaLiɁ	language
Seediq (Truku)	kari	word, speech, language, voice
Kanakanabu	kaári	language
Saaroa	kari	language
Paiwan	kai	language, speech, words
	ma-tja-kai	to take one’s turn speaking
	ru-kai-kai	to chatter, be a chatterbox
WMP
Ilokano	karí	promise, vow
Isneg	kaxí	speech, talk, language
	pag-kag-kaxí	means of saying, of telling, of talking
	kaxi-yán	to say, to tell
Itawis	ma-kahí	to be able to tell
	mak-kahí	to say
	kay-án	to tell
Bontok	kalí	speech; word; the local dialect, the language of one’s home town or village, particularly the Bontok language; the call of an animal or bird; the sound that something makes
Kankanaey	ma-kalí	to babble, to prattle; to jabber; to gossip
	men-kalí	to speak; to talk; to emit a sound
	kali-én	to call
Ifugaw	kalí	speech, language, word; to speak, to say, tell something
	pa-ŋalí-na	it is his way of speaking
Casiguran Dumagat	kági	talk, speech, language; to say, to speak; to decide; to think
	kági	talk, speech, language; to say, to speak, to decide, to think
Remontado	káyi	speech, language
Binukid	kagi	word; speech
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kaǥi	to say; to speak; to talk
Klata	koli	to say

31975

*kaRi₂ bivalve species used as a scraper

10199

POC *kaRi₂ bivalve species used as a scraper

OC
Nggela	gali	species of mollusc, Asaphis deflorata; eaten
Toqabaqita	ʔali	species of bivalve shellfish: its shell is used as a scraper to clean taros, breadfruit, etc. that have been roasted in the fire, to scrape out the flesh of a coconut, and as a spoon
Sa'a	ali	a cockle
Mota	gar	a cockle shell, used to cut yam vines, and to scrape out meat of coconut
Raga	gari	cockle shell; used as a scraper
Fijian	kai	generic name of bivalve shellfish: Lamellibranchiata

Note: This comparison was first proposed by Pawley (2011:191).

26660

*kaRiŋ dry

3119

PWMP *kaRiŋ dry [doublet: *kaRaŋ]

WMP
Ilokano	káriŋ	dried fish
Kalamian Tagbanwa	kagiŋ	thoroughly dry
Cebuano	kagiŋ	stiff (as jerked meat which has been left out too long)
Mansaka	kagiŋ	to be dried (as smoked fish or sun-dried meat)
Ma'anyan	kariŋ	dry

26658

*kaRiqit sound of scratching

3117

PMP *kaRiqit sound of scratching

WMP
Cebuano	kagíʔit	make a creaking sound
Malay	kerit	sound of scratching, grating or gnawing; to gnaw
CMP
Manggarai	kerit	scratch (with hand, comb); scream, shriek

31899

*kaRiskis scrape, scratch

10110

PPh *kaRiskis scrape, scratch [doublet: *kaRitkit]

WMP
Ilokano	kariskis-en	to scrape tree bark; to scrape the outside of a pot
Cebuano	kagiskis	a shrill, scraping, scratching sound; make a shrill scraping sound

31673

*kaRitkit sound of grating, rain pounding, etc.

9830

PPh *kaRitkit sound of grating, rain pounding, etc.

WMP
Ilokano	karitíkit	sound of a running mouse or a shuffling hen; sound of rain; sound of jingling
Cebuano	kagitkít	grinding, grating sound; make a grinding, grating sound

31633

*kaRkaR to dry something in the sun

9785

PWMP *kaRkaR to dry something in the sun [disjunct: *kagkag]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kágkag	to dry in the sun (of rice, meat, clothes, etc.)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kagkag	to dry something in the sun
	peni-ŋagkag	to warm oneself in the sun
Lun Dayeh	kakar	spreading of grains such as paddy or corn on a mat to dry in the sun

32017

*kaRu₁ to swim

10245

POC *kaRu₁ to swim

OC
Kwara'ae	aru	to swim
Sikaiana	kau	to swim
Mota	garu	to advance by motion of legs and arms, so to wade and swim, of men
Fortsenal	karu	to swim
Peterara	xa-xaru	to swim
Northeast Ambae	karu	to swim
Raga	ga-garu	to swim; to float by moving arms and legs; to take a bath
Kwamera	aru	to swim
Tongan	ka-kau	to swim, of men and ducks, etc., but not fish
Niue	ka-kau	to swim
Samoan	ʔaʔau	to swim
Tuvaluan	ka-kau	to swim
	kau-kau	to bathe, take a bath or shower
Rennellese	ka-kau	to swim
Rarotongan	kau	to swim, to float, to paddle, as in the water
	aka-kau	to make or cause to swim or float
	kau-kau	to swim or float about or around, to bathe or take a bath; swimming, bathing
Maori	kau-hoe	to swim (hoe = ‘push away with the hand; paddle’)
Rapanui	kau	to swim
Hawaiian	ʔau	to swim, travel by sea
	hō-ʔau	to teach to swim, learn to swim; to swim with a drowning person

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2016:405-406), who included Titan kaw from the languages of the Admiralties, a form that is unlike any that I elicited for the meaning ‘swim’ when conducting a linguistic survey of the Admiralties in 1975.

33325

*kaRu₂ say, tell; speak

11863

POC *kaRu₂ say, tell; speak

OC
Gedaged	azu	word; speech, talk, sermon, address; language, dialect
Proto-Trukic	*kaú	to say, tell (Jackson 1983:184)

26662

*kaRud scrape, grate, rasp

3121

PMP *kaRud scrape, grate, rasp

WMP
Bontok	kagúd	to remove rice grain from the stalk by scraping or trampling, preparatory to planting
Tagalog	kagód	grating sound, as that of a coconut against the coconut grater
Cebuano	kagúd	grind something to shreds by rubbing or scraping it; abrade, wear off
Binukid	kagud	to scrape something out of something else (as meat out of a coconut)
Mansaka	kagod	to grate
Tausug	mag-kagud	to scrape, remove something by scraping
Malay	karut	rasp
OC
Arosi	karu	to scratch

26663

*kaRuki sand crab

3122

PMP *kaRuki sand crab

WMP
Chamorro	haguhi	sand crab
OC
Kosraean	kuluk ^<A	sand crab
Marshallese	karuk	white sand crab
Puluwat	yár'ik	small edible crab

Note: Also Kove karoko ‘crab’, Fijian kauke( -e for expected -i) ‘small whitish land crab found in sandy beaches’.

26666

*kaRuŋkuŋ gullet, throat

3125

PWMP *kaRuŋkuŋ throat

WMP
Ibaloy	KaloŋKoŋ	general term for both trachea and esophagus – the anatomical part both in humans and animals
Malay	keroŋkoŋ	gullet, uvula

Note: Also KALL galuŋguŋ ‘throat’, Isinay galuŋguŋ ‘throat’, Malay keleŋkoŋ ‘uvula’, kereŋkoŋ ‘roof of the mouth; gullet; uvula’, roŋkoŋ ‘larynx; gullet’, Toba Batak ruŋkuŋ ‘neck’. Possibly *ka-Ruŋkuŋ.

26664

*kaRus scrape

3123

PAN *kaRus scrape [doublet: *garus 'scratch']

Formosan
Bunun	ma-kalus	to scratch hard (as a cat)
Paiwan	karut	rake
WMP
Ilokano	kárus	scraper; anything that can be used to scrape out the meat of coconuts, or to scrape pawpaws or papayas into shreds for salad; for instance, a potsherd, piece of coconut shell, etc.
Cebuano	kágus	scrape something that is hard and coarse
Ngaju Dayak	karus	rustling sound, as in dry leaves
OC
Nggela	garu, garus-i	to scratch
Arosi	karu	to scratch

Note: Tsuchida's (1976:174) proto-Southern-Formosan *kaRus ‘scoop out’ may be related.

32018

*kaRuskus dull rustling sound

10246

PPh *kaRuskus dull rustling sound

WMP
Pangasinan	kaluskus	rustling noise
Cebuano	kaguskus	dull rustling sound

26667

*kasambiʔ a tree: Schleichera trijuga

3126

PMP *kasambiʔ a tree: Schleichera trijuga

WMP
Malay (Java)	kesambi	a tree: Schleichera trijuga, much used in charcoal-form, the bast in medicine, and the young leaves in cookery
Sasak	kesambiʔ	a tree, Schleichera trijuga, much prized for timber; the bast is used as a substitute for betel nut
CMP
Kambera (Mangili)	kahambi	kind of ironwood tree: Schleichera oleosa

Note: Also Manggarai cambir, Kambera (Waingapu) kahembi ‘a tree: Schleichera spp.’.

30457

*kasaw₁ rafter, diagonal bamboo poles to which thatch panels are lashed

7637

PMP *kasaw₁ rafter, diagonal bamboo poles to which thatch panels are lashed

WMP
Ilokano	kásaw	layer of nipa leaves used in thatching
	kasaw-en	to arrange into rows
Kankanaey	kásaw	barrier, bar
Ifugaw (Batad)	ahaw	an inside rafter of the roof of a house
Casiguran Dumagat	kasaw	the cross bamboo sticks on a roof that the nipa shingles are laced to
Maranao	kasaw	rafter, rib of bamboo in a thatch roof
Mansaka	kasaw	rafter
Tiruray	kesew ^<A	rafter
Mapun	kasaw	purlin (crosspiece nailed to rafters used as backing for nailing roofing material to)
	kasaw laki	a rafter
Tausug	kasaw	a purlin for a roof, horizontal cross-piece of a roof
Kadazan Dusun	kasaw	a lath, stripping stick laid across purlins for thatching roof of a traditional house
Dali'	aw	rafter
Kiput	kasaaw	rafter
Melanau (Mukah)	kasaw	rafter
Iban	kasaw	rafter, roof timbers
Malay	kasaw	rafter; crossbeam for supporting a roof
	kasaw jantan	front or main rafters (‘male rafters’)
	kasaw betina	lesser or lower rafters (‘female rafters’)
Simalur	asaw	rafters
Karo Batak	kaso	rafter
Rejang	kaseuw	ceiling support, beam
Sundanese	kaso-kaso	rafters
Sangir	kaso	rafter
	ma-ŋaso	to lay down rafters (in house construction); extend at an oblique angle into the river (of a fishline)
Tontemboan	kaso	rafter, which runs from top to bottom and to which the roof thatch is attached
Tonsawang	kaso	rafter
Mongondow	kataw	rafter
Totoli	kaso	rafter
Boano	kaso	rafter
Tajio	aso	rafter
Banggai	kaso	rafter
Uma	kaho	rafter
Bare'e	kaso	rafter, usually of bamboo, to which the thatch panels of the roof are bound with rattan
Tae'	kaso	rafter, of wood or bamboo
Buginese	kaso	rafter
Makassarese	kaso	rafter
Muna	saho	rafter (crosspiece to which thatch is attached)
CMP
Watubela	kaha	rafter
Asilulu	asa	rafter
Wakasihu	asa-i	rafter
Soboyo	kaso	rafter
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	asa	rafter
Buli	as	rafter, to which the roof thatch is bound
OC
Lakalai	la-aro	rafter of a house
Manam	ʔaro	topmost rafters (laid on top of cross sticks that are laid on lower rafters)
Roviana	gaso-na	rafter
Eddystone/Mandegusu	qaso	the rafters of the roof and alcove or apse of a house, which rest on the beams, and project beyond the ridge
Bugotu	gaho	rafter
	gao-gaho	to set up a booth with rafters
Nggela	gaho	rafter
Kwaio	ʔato	rafter, usually bamboo poles to which thatch panels are lashed
Lau	ʔato	rafter
Toqabaqita	ʔato	rafter
'Āre'āre	ato	a rafter of wood or bamboo
Sa'a	ato	a rafter, generally of bamboo
Arosi	ʔato	rafter of a house
Marshallese	kat-tal	rafters; horizontal
Mokilese	kad-dal	rafters
Puluwat	yóót	vertical house rafter
Woleaian	gato	thatch rafter of a house
Mota	gaso	a rafter; to put on the rafters of a house
Fijian	i kaso	crossbeam fastening together the outrigger and the hull of a canoe; the children of an inferior wife, the attendants and slaves of a marama wife
Niue	kaho	a light rafter in a thatched house
Futunan	kaso	rafter in a house
Samoan	ʔaso	thatch-rafter
Nukuoro	gaso	roof thatch rafters (of pandanus slats)
Rennellese	kaso	vertical rafters of a house to which thatch panels are bound
Maori	kaho	batten, laid horizontally on the rafters to carry the several layers of thatch of a house; of these battens the uppermost was considered sacred
Hawaiian	ʔaho	thatch purlin and rafter

Note: Also Ifugaw kahʔó ‘rafter of an Ifugaw house; outside the Kiangan area a rafter is called bughúl’, Manobo (Western Bukidnon) gasew, Nias gasõ ‘lath, batten of roof, gasõ matua ‘main house beam’ (‘masculine gasõ’). Dempwolff (1938) posited *kasaw ‘rafters’, but the comparative evidence allows us to propose a more specific gloss than this. Languages reaching from the northern Philippines (Ilokano, Casiguran Dumagat) through central Indonesia (Bare'e, Muna), eastern Indonesia (Buli), Micronesia (Woleaian), Melanesia (Kwaio), and Polynesia (Samoan, Nukuoro, Rennellese, Maori, Hawaiian) specifically indicate that the *kasaw was a bamboo rafter to which the thatch panels of the roof were attached. In addition, there are marginal indications that the main rafters may have been called the ‘male’ rafters, and the secondary rafters the ‘female’ rafters, as shown by the glosses of Malay kasaw jantan and kasaw betina, as well as Mapun kasaw laki, where laki may reflect PMP *laki ‘male’, although Collins, Collins and Hashim (2001) do not list it as part of the contemporary language. Also note that among the Maori the battens were not all equal, since “the uppermost was considered sacred” (cf. Barnes 1974:55 on Kédang laqi, meaning both ‘high’ and ‘male’).

30458

*kasaw₂ kind of reed-like plant (?)

7638

PMP *kasaw₂ kind of reed-like plant (?)

WMP
Sundanese	kaso	a tall reed-like plant similar to sugarcane
Uma	kaho	rice straw, rice stalk

7639

POC *kaso₁ reed

OC
Tongan	kaho	reeds; a single reed is called a va’a kaho
Rennellese	kaso	kind of reed or small tree, Amaranthus sp.

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31702

*kasay weakness, as from hunger

9868

PPh *kasay weakness, as from hunger

WMP
Ilokano	kásay	debility due to lack of nourishment
Mansaka	kasay-kasay	to tremble; to shake (as a dying person)

26668

*kasep plant sp.

3127

PWMP *kasep plant sp.

WMP
Isneg	kassáp	common low herb used in black magic: it causes the ruin of a whole field of rice
Maranao	kasep	snake grass: Drymaria cordata L.
	kasep a taw	creeping vine: Oxalis repens Thunb.
Iban	medaŋ kasap	a tree: Gironniera sp.
Malay	empelas kasap	a plant (Tetracera assa) of which the leaves are used as sandpaper
	kasap	a shrub: Clerodendron villosum

31976

*kasi to scrape; scraper or grater made from circular bivalve shell: Asaphis spp.

10200

POC *kasi to scrape; scraper or grater made from circular bivalve shell: Asaphis spp.

OC
Lakalai	kasi	to scratch
	la-kasi	mussel or clam; mussel shell used as knife
Tawala	kahi	pearl shell
Tikopia	kasi	bivalve mollusc, Asaphis violascens, and possibly other related bivalves; shell used as cutting or scraping implement
Rotuman	ʔɔsi	cockle shell, much used for scraping
Tongan	kahi	kind of shellfish
Samoan	ʔasi	edible mollusc (Arca sp.), the shell of which is used as a scraper; shell scraper
Maori	kahi	a freshwater bivalve mollusc: Hyridella menziesi; a saltwater bivalve mollusc: Amphidesma australe

Note: A slightly longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (2011:191).

31977

*kasika a fish, large emperor: Lethrinus sp.

10201

POC *kasika a fish, large emperor: Lethrinus sp.

OC
Titan	kasi	the trumpet emperor: Lethrinus miniatus
Motu	adia	green jobfish: Aprion virescens; small-tooth emperor: Lethrinus microdon
Kahua	gasiga	a fish: Lethrinus elongatus, Lethrinus olivaceus
Wayan	kacika	emperor fish: Lethrinella miniata
Fijian	kacika	a fish resembling but shorter than the doko-ni-vudi (Sethrinus miniatus)

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011:81-82).

31662

*kasíli kind of water bird, the Oriental darter: Anhinga melanogaster

9819

PPh *kasíli kind of water bird, the Oriental darter: Anhinga melanogaster

WMP
Ilokano	kasíli	kind of cormorant
Cebuano	kasíli	kind of darter: Anhinga melanogaster

31641

*kaskás swift, fast, speedy

9795

PPh *kaskás swift, fast, speedy

WMP
Ilokano	kaskás	to do swiftly; do fast
Bikol	kaskás	fast, rapid, speedy, swift
	k<in>askas-án	pace, rate, velocity
	kaskas-ón	to quicken, to increase the speed of; to speed up the pace of
Maranao	kaskas	run fast, work fast and hard
Sangir	kəɁkasəɁ	prepare oneself quickly to go somewhere

9796

PPh *kaskás-án (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Ilokano	kaskas-án	to do swiftly, do fast
Bikol	kaskas-án	to rush or hurry someone up

Note: Rubino (2000) cites the Ilokano base only with the native suffix -an and the Spanish suffix -ero. With root *-kas₃ ‘swift, agile; energetic’.

26669

*kaskas₁ loosen, untie

3128

PMP *kaskas₁ loosen, untie

WMP
Cebuano	kaskás	uproot vines to clear an area
Maranao	kakas	untie
Uma	kaka	loosen, untie (a rope, hobbled animal, etc.)
Makassarese	kakkasaʔ	shake out, spread out (a towel, mat)
CMP
Buruese	kaka-h	undo, open

Note: Also Cebuano kakás ‘detach something that has been stitched or similarly attached; uproof vines in clearing an area’. With root *-kas₂ ‘loosen, undo, untie’.

31785

*kaskas₂ scrape, scratch

9962

PMP *kaskas₂ scrape, scratch

WMP
Tagalog	kaskás	scraped off, rasped off
	pa-kaskás	molasses candy made from the juice of coconut gratings and packed in buri leaves; sugar from buri palm
	kaskas-in	to scrape something off (a surface)
Ngaju Dayak	kakas	scratching, scraping; what is scratched or scraped off (in the earth)
Malay	kakas	to scratch up, of fowls scratching up food

9963

POC *kakas scrape, scratch

OC
Motu	kakasi-a	to scratch, to scrape
Samoan	ʔaʔasi	to scratch deeply
	ʔaʔasi-a	be scratched, as one’s arm

Note: Also Roviana gasi-a ‘to make or scratch a line or mark’. The Oceanic forms appear to have incorporated the transitive suffix -i as part of the base. The Tagalog and Ngaju Dayak forms appears to be related, but the similarity of the Oceanic words to these and to each other may be a product of chance.

30870

*kaso coconut leaf basket

8695

POC *kaso₂ coconut leaf basket

OC
Label	kas	basket
'Āre'āre	kato	coconut leaf basket
Sa'a	kaato	coconut leaf basket
Tongan	kato	basket; suitcase; pouch; pocket
Niue	kato	basket
	kato tupe	purse
	kato leta	suitcase
	kato tāpulu	pocket of a garment
Samoan	ʔato	basket; luggage, baggage
	ʔato-paʔu	suitcase
	ʔato-tupe	purse, wallet
Tuvaluan	kato	lidded box

Note: Also Tuvaluan kete ‘basket’, Kapingamarangi gada ‘basket’, Nukuoro gede ‘basket (the general term)’, Rennellese kete ‘basket, plaited bag, haversack’, Anuta kete ‘a type of deep, narrow coconut leaf basket, constructed in such a way that it can be tied around the waist’, Rarotongan kete ‘a general name for certain patterns of native baskets’, Maori kete ‘basket made of strips of flax, etc.; belly of a net’, Hawaiian ʔeke ‘sack, pocket, bag’. Polynesian languages show the ‘third palatal reflex’ (Blust 1976).

31690

*kasu smoke

9854

POC *kasu smoke [doublet: *qasu]

OC
Nauna	kasu-n mon	smoke (= smoke of a fire)
Lou	kosu mon	smoke
Penchal	kasu-n	smoke
Nali	kosu mʷan	smoke
Titan	kasu mʷan	smoke
Sori	asu jap	smoke
Bipi	kasu ŋas	smoke
Wuvulu	agu	smoke
Aua	aru	smoke
Mussau	asu	smoke
Vitu	kasu	smoke
Wogeo	kas	smoke
Manam	ʔasu	smoke
Gedaged	kas	the tobacco plant; a leaf of tobacco, a cigar
Takia	kas	smoke
Tongan	kohu	to smoke, emit smoke, give off smoke or fumes

26670

*kasuli freshwater eel

3129

PWMP *kasuli freshwater eel

WMP
Palawan Batak	kasíli	eel
Binukid	kasili	generic for eel
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kesili	eel
Mansaka	kasili	eel
Sangil	kasíli	freshwater eel
Proto-Sangiric	*kasili	eel
Proto-Minahasan	*kasili	eel
Gorontalo	otili	eel
Chamorro	(h)asuli	freshwater eel: Anguilla marmorata

Note: With assimilation of *u to the following *i in PPh.

34043

*kasusu coconut crab

12897

PMP *kasusu coconut crab

WMP
Palauan	ketát ^<M	coconut crab
OC
Nauna	kasus	coconut crab
Titan	kasus	coconut crab
Sori	kasus	coconut crab
Bipi	kasus	coconut crab

Note: Since PMP *qayuyu is already well-established in the meaning ‘coconut crab’ this word must refer to a distinct type of coconut crab, or simply be a product of convergence (made more likely by the need to assume vowel metathesis in the Palauan form).

26671

*kaS(e)pal thick, of solid objects

3130

PAN *kaS(e)pal thick, of solid objects

Formosan
Bunun	ma-kaspal	thick
WMP
Tagalog	kapál	thickness
Kelabit	kapal	thick
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kapan	thick
Toba Batak	hapal	thick, strong, of objects
CMP
Ngadha	kapa	thick, massive
Kédang	kapal	thick

3131

PWMP *ma-kapal thick, of solid objects

WMP
Tagalog	ma-kapál	thick
Bintulu	mə-kapan	thick (of objects)
Karo Batak	kapal	thick, of planks, etc.
	me-kapal	thick, of planks, etc.

30531

*kaSiw wood; tree

7794

PAN *kaSiw wood; tree

Formosan
Saisiyat	kæhœy	tree, wood
Pazeh	kahuy	tree, wood
Amis	kasoy	firewood
	mi-kasoy	to hunt for firewood
Amis (Kiwit)	kasuy	tree; firewood
Thao	kawi	wood, stick; tree; wood stop for a door latch
	tau-kawi	to carry wood
	pash-kawi-an	any place where wood is stored
Siraya	kayu	tree, wood (Ferrell 1969)
Puyuma	kawi	wood, tree
	pu-kawi	to put wood (on the fire)
	pa-kawi-an ~ pu-(a)-kawi-an	woodshed
	sa-kawi-an	one (a unit for trees)
Paiwan	kasiw	tree, wood
	s<m>u-kasiw	to remove branches (as when tree is too large to be felled)
	ki-kasiw	to gather or cut wood
	pu-kasi-kasiv-an	place for storing firewood

7795

PMP *kahiw wood; tree

WMP
Yami	kayo	wood, tree
Itbayaten	kayoh	tree, wood, firewood; bunch or cluster of fruits (esp. of banana)
	ini-chayoh	transferred piled big trees from the field
	saa-kayoh	one bunch of bananas (generally 10 to 20)
Ilokano	káyo	tree; wood, timber; trunk, stem
	tari-káyo	log; timber, lumber
Agta (Dupaningan)	kayú	living tree
Isneg	káyo	tree, shrub; wood, timber
Itawis	káyu	tree, wood
	mak-káyu	to gather firewood
	kayu-án	to chop wood for firewood
Malaweg	kayuy	stick, wood
Bontok	káʔəw	wood, tree, specifically pine tree, Pinus insularis Endl.
Kankanaey	káiw	wood; timber; tree, shrub
Ifugaw	káiw ~ káyu	tree
Ifugaw (Batad)	āyiw	a branching tree with a hard bark, or a piece of a tree, such as a stick, log, plank
	i-āyiw	to take someone along in gathering firewood, e.g. when men take along women to get firewood during the post-transplanting holiday season
Casiguran Dumagat	kayó	tree, wood, stick
Ibaloy	kiyew	tree; in some contexts kiyew is generic for all trees, but also kiyew can be specific in contrast with kadasan, non-pine trees; wood; firewood, wood for fuel
Pangasinan	kiéw	tree, stick, timber
Tagalog	kahóy	wood; lumber
Bikol	káhoy	tree; wood, timber; log; wooden
Hanunóo	káyu	wood; tree
Masbatenyo	káhoy	wood, timber, tree, log
Aklanon	káhoy	tree (general term); wood, lumber
Hiligaynon	káhuy	tree, wood, timber
Palawan Batak	kayó	wood; tree; stick
	kayo ʔápoy	firewood
Cebuano	káhuy	tree; wood, firewood
	pa-ŋahuy-káhuy	for muscles to get stiff with fatigue
	tig-káhuy	log with branches cut off; twigs; gather cut down wood for firewood
	talig-káhuy	gather logs for a house
Maranao	kayo	tree, wood, lumber, board
	kayo-n	woody
Binukid	kayu	tree; wood, timber, pole; stem, stalk (of plants)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kayu	tree; wood; a stick; to gather wood
Mansaka	kaoy	tree; wood
Tiruray	kayew	wood, firewood, a tree
Klata	kayyu	tree, wood
Mapun	kayu	tree; firewood; lumber
	kayuh-an	add some wood to the fire (imper.)
Yakan	kayu	tree (generic); wood (generic); lumber; firewood
Tboli	koyu	tree; wood
Tausug	kahuy	wood, tree, lumber, timber
Kadazan Dusun	kazu	tree; wood
Tombonuwo	kayu	tree
Kujau	kazu	wood
Minokok	kazu	wood
Ida'an Begak	kayu	tree; wood
Bisaya (Limbang)	kayu	wood; tree
	puun kayu	base of a tree; counting classifier for trees
Belait	kajeow	wood
Lun Dayeh	kayuh	wood
	pun kayuh	tree
Kelabit	kayuh	wood; tree
Sa'ban	ayəw	wood; tree
Berawan (Long Terawan)	kajuh	wood; tree
Narum	hayew	wood; tree
Dali'	asaw	tree
Miri	ajuh	wood; tree
Kenyah	kayu	a tree; wood
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kayu	wood; tree
	puʔun kayu	base of a tree
Kenyah (Long Ikang)	kayəw	wood
Murik	kayuʔ	wood; tree
	puʔun kayuʔ	base of a tree
Kayan	kayoʔ	wood; timber; a tree
	kayoʔ tayun	firewood (always kept in place over fireplace)
Kayan (Long Atip)	kayoʔ	tree
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kayoʔ	wood; tree
	puʔun kayoʔ	base of a tree
Kiput	kacəw	wood; tree
Bintulu	kazəw	wood
	puʔun kazəw	tree
Melanau (Mukah)	kayəw	wood; tree
	puʔun kayəw	base of a tree
Melanau Dalat	kayəw	wood; tree
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)	pəʔun kayəw	base of a tree
Bekatan	kaju	wood
Seru	kayoh	wood
Tunjung	ləŋan kaju	tree
Ngaju Dayak	kayu	wood; tree
	kayu-n apuy	firewood
Malagasy	házo	tree or shrub; wood of all kinds; (fig.) hard
Iban	kayuʔ	tree; numeral classifier for trees; wood, timber; wooden; length of wood, stick
Cham	kayau	wood
Jarai	kəyəw	wood; tree
Moken	kae	wood
	kae pokon	tree
Malay	kayu	timber, in various senses: 1. a tree and its parts, 2. trees and classes of timber, 3. timber appliances
	tukaŋ kayu	carpenter
Bahasa Indonesia	kayu	woody tree; wood
	kayu api	firewood
	ber-kayu	containing wood; search for wood in the forest
Acehnese	kayeə	wood, tree, stick, pole, beam
Gayō	kayu	wood, tree
	be-kayu	search for wood to build a house
Karo Batak	kayu	wood
	bataŋ kayu	tree, tree trunk
	er-kayu	gather wood in the forest for house construction
	ŋ-kayu-i	bring wood for a house construction party
	per-kayu	wood that has been prepared for house construction
Toba Batak	hau	tree, wood
	mar-hau	fell trees to build a house
	par-hau	all kinds of timber used for building
Nias	eu	wood; firewood
	sag-eu	a piece (of wood, of pork, cloth, etc.)
Sundanese	kayu	wood, wooden
	ikan kayu	plank fish
Old Javanese	kayu	wood, tree
Javanese	kayu	wood, tree; firewood; dead body
Balinese	kayu	wood, tree; bolt of cloth, roll of silk
Sasak	kayuʔ	tree, wood
Sangir	kalu	tree; wood; stalk
	meʔ-kalu	get a stem (of plants)
	kalu-n dapuh-aŋ	wood used in cooking (lit. ‘kitchen-wood’)
Tontemboan	kayu	tree, wood
	k<in>ayu	place where trees are raised
	taŋ-kayu-n	something that loves to eat wood (as termites)
Tonsawang	kayu	wood
Mongondow	kayu	wood, tree, classifier for
Totoli	kayu	wood
Pendau	ʔayu	wood
Petapa Taje	ʔayu	wood
Ampibabo-Lauje	ʔayu	wood
Banggai	kayu-ŋ	tree, living wood
Uma	kaju	wood; tree; woods
	-kaju-i	to encase a corpse (in wood); counting classifier for fish, etc.
Bare'e	kaju	tree, shrub, wood, plant
	puʔu-ŋ-kaju	base of a tree
	ka-kaju	wild, of animals
	mampa-kaju	determine or make certain
	mampariŋ-kaju	lay a corpse in a coffin
	maŋ-kaju-ni	support, prop up
	mo-kaju	to form a trunk or stem (of a tree); stand firm, be certain
Tae'	kayu	tree, wood, the hard, woody part of the main root of the cassava
	di-pe-kayu mate	place the body of a dead child in a casket
	meŋ-kayu-an	become hard, of the woody part of the main root of the cassava
	pe-kayu-an	collect wood for something
	paʔ-kayu-an	building material of wood for a house or granary
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kayu	wood
Mori Atas	kau	wood
	kau	wood
Koroni	keu	wood
Wawonii	keu	wood
Tolaki	kasu	wood
Moronene	keu	wood
Buginese	aju	wood
Makassarese	kayu	wood; classifier for counting animals, rolls of goods, pieces
Wolio	kau	wood, timber, stick, plant, roll (of textile)
Muna	sau	wood, stick; classifier for teeth, finger and betel nuts; bolt of cloth
	ka-sau-sau	small tree
Popalia	kaw	stick; wood
Palauan	kərrəkár	tree; wood; log; board
Chamorro	hayu	stick, wood
	tronkon hayu	tree

7796

PCEMP *kayu wood; tree

CMP
Bimanese	haju	wood
Komodo	haju	wood; tree
Manggarai	haju	wood, tree, trunk, staff
Rembong	kazu	wood
Ngadha	kadzu	wood, stick; tree; forest, bush; stiff like a piece of wood, as one’s back
Palu'e	kayu	tree
Li'o	kayu	wood
Adonara	kajo	tree
Kédang	ai	pole; tree
Lamboya	pu yayu	tree
Kambera	ai	wood
Dhao/Ndao	aju	tree
	aju	tree
Rotinese	ai	tree, stalk, wood
	ai hu-k	tree
Atoni	hau-(b)	tree
	hau-b un	base of a tree
Tetun	ai-laran	forest (‘in/among the trees’)
Vaikenu	hau	tree
Galoli	ai	wood, tree
Erai	ai	wood, piece of wood, pole, post, stick, tree
	ai ai	pieces of wood
Kisar	au	wood; tree
Leti	ai	wood, in combination forms; tree
Selaru	au	wood; tree
Ujir	kai	stick, wood
Dobel	ʔay	tree; wood
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)	key	stick, wood
Watubela	kai	wood
Kamarian	ai	wood; tree
Alune	ai	wood; tree
Wahai	ai	wood
Saparua	ai	wood
Manipa	he-n	wood
Batu Merah	ai	tree
Amblau	au	wood
Buruese	kau	wood
	kau lahin	tree
Tifu	kau	wood
Kayeli	au	wood; tree
Soboyo	kayu	wood; tree
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	ai	tree
Buli	ai	tree; wood
Biga	ai	stick, wood
Minyaifuin	kai	stick, wood
Dusner	ai	tree, wood
Ron	ai	tree, wood
Numfor	a(i)	wood; tree
	ai	tree, wood
Waropen	a	wood; tree (in combination forms)
Pom	ai	tree, wood
Ansus	ay	tree, wood
Ambai	ai	wood, tree
Papuma	ai	tree, wood
Woi	ay	wood, tree
Kurudu	ai	tree, wood

7797

POC *kayu wood; strong; stiff; penis (colloquial)

OC
Lou	ke	tree
Nali	key	tree
	key paley	mast
Leipon	key	tree
	ke-pley	mast
Papitalai	key	tree
Drehet	kep	wood; tree
Likum	kay	tree
	kay pelep	mast
Sori	ay	tree
Bipi	ki	tree
Tigak	i-ai	tree
Tanga	au	wood, timber
Arop	kai	wood
Sobei	ai	stick; wood
Tarpia	kai	tree
Ali	ai	wood, tree
Wogeo	ka	tree
Manam	kai	tree; to be strong, to be stubborn
	kai-kai iter	firm, to be strong or stubborn
Takia	ai	tree
Gitua	ai	tree; wood
Numbami	ai	tree; wood; stick (of wood)
Hula	au	tree
Adzera	gai	tree
Motu	au	tree; firewood
Pokau	au	tree, wood
Mekeo (East)	au	tree
Uruava	au	tree
Torau	au	wood
Mono-Alu	au	tree
Babatana	γazu	tree
Kokota	gazu	tree
Vangunu	hai	tree
Bugotu	gai	tree; shaft of spear
Nggela	gai	a branching plant, shrub or tree, i.e. balsam, croton, and banyan are all gai, but not a palm or coconut; wood, timber; firewood; stem or handle of an axe, pipe, etc. (not basket); prefix to names of plants or trees
Kwaio	ʔai	tree, branch, stick, woody plant (shrub, bush)
	ʔai-wane	a male tree; hence, sterile, unmarried, childless
Lau	ʔai	wood; a mast
	si-ʔai	firewood, bundle of firewood
Toqabaqita	ʔai	tree (does not include palm trees, cycads, tree-ferns, bamboos, banana trees); wood; firewood; timber; stick, pole, post, beam; mast of a ship, and some other relatively long and thin objects made out of wood
'Āre'āre	ʔai	generic name for wood, tree
Sa'a	ʔäi	tree, wood , more commonly used in Ulawa; to be stiff, numb
Arosi	ʔai	a tree or plant having stem and branches; not used of a fern cycad, sago palm, coconut, etc.
Proto-Micronesian	*kayu	wood; pole
Gilbertese	kai	wood; instrument
Marshallese	kāān, keyin	trunk of a tree; torso of a person; tree
Chuukese	eyi-ni-wow	carrying pole
Woleaian	gai	penis, male genital
Carolinian	gháyi- ~ ghayú-	penis (men’s talk)
Cape Cumberland	hau	tree
Piamatsina	hau	tree
Malmariv	au	tree
Lametin	au	tree
Peterara	xai	stick
Northeast Ambae	kai	tree
Raga	xai	tree
Sowa	tu-kai	tree
Atchin	n-ei	tree
Rano	n-ai	tree
Tape	n-e	tree
Lingarak	na-ɣa	tree; stick, wood
Leviamp	n-ai	tree
Letemboi	n-ai	tree
Axamb	na-xai	tree
	xai	stick
	na-xai	tree
Maxbaxo	nə-γai	tree; stick
Vowa	la-kai	tree
Makatea	ra-kau	tree
Nakanamanga	na-kau	tree
Pwele	na-kau	stick; tree
Lenakel	nə-k	tree
Rotuman	ʔɔi	tree, plant; wood, timber, piece of wood; box, chest, safe, thing made (or usually made) of wood)
Wayan	kai	wood; generic for trees and shrubs, and occasionally low bushy plants; used in certain compounds as a generic for all plants; piece of wood, stick; (vulgar, colloq.) penis; in restricted phrases, be hard, strong, tough; wooden, made of wood
Fijian	kau	a tree, piece of wood, stick; wooden, very hard
	vū-ni-kau	definitely a tree
Tongan	kau	stalk, stem (of leaf, without or with the midrib, or of a flower or fruit); something resembling a stalk or stem, e.g. stem of a tobacco pipe
	ʔa-kau	tree, plant
	fuʔu ʔakau	wood; made of wood, wooden
Niue	a-kau	tree, wood, timber; rod, staff, weapon
Futunan	laʔa-kau	tree; woods; stick
Samoan	lā-ʔau	plant, tree; wood; apparatus, set, machine; instrument
Tuvaluan	laa-kau	tree, stick; plant; penis
	laa-kau hika	fire plough; bed of fire plough
Kapingamarangi	laa-gau	tree; stick, pole; log; bush
Nukuoro	laa-gau	wood; stick (of wood)
Rennellese	gaʔa-kau	general name for any kind of log, stick, or plant (tree, bush, shrub); canoe log; shark tail; fighting club
	gaʔa-kau tuʔuti	sacred staff of a priest, scepter
Anuta	raa-kau ~ ra-kau	tree, plant, wood, stick, club, plank, timber, log
Rarotongan	ra-kau	general name for trees or shrubs or plants; general name for wood of any kind; a pole, a rod, a stick; a weapon
	ra-kau kava	a poisonous tree, a bitter herb; also used to denote a gun
Maori	rā-kau	tree; wood, timber; stick, spar, mast; weapon; wooden
	tai whaka-rā-kau	long swell
Hawaiian	lā-ʔau	tree, plant, wood, timber, forest, stick, thicket, club; blow of a club; strength, rigidness, hardness; male erection; to have formed mature wood, as of a seedling; wooden, woody; stiff, as wood; medicine, medicinal; lump or knot in the flesh, as eased by the rubbing kahi massage; to have a cramp

7798

PPh *ma-kahiw (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Bikol	ma-káhoy	wooded
Masbatenyo	ma-káhoy	wooded, timbered
Tontemboan	ma-kayu	become woody or hard
	ma-kayu-n	grown over with trees, where formerly there were none

7799

PWMP *ma-ŋahiw to gather wood, as for fuel; gather firewood

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-ŋayoh	to gather firewood
Ilokano	ma-ŋáyo	to gather firewood
Bontok	maŋ-áʔəw	to get a load of wood for fuel
Ifugaw	ma-ŋáiw ~ ma-ŋáyu	to get firewood
Ifugaw (Batad)	maŋ-āyiw	gather firewood from a forest
Ibaloy	me-ŋiyew	to get wood for fuel
Tagalog	ma-ŋahóy	to gather firewood
Bikol	ma-ŋáhoy	to collect wood
Masbatenyo	ma-ŋáhoy	to collect wood
Aklanon	ma-ŋa-ŋáhoy	wood-gatherer
Mapun	ŋayu	to use wood, coconut shells, etc. as fuel in cooking; to add wood to a fire
Tausug	ma-ŋahuy	to gather firewood (esp. in the woods)
Ngaju Dayak	ma-ŋañu	to gather firewood
	ma-ŋa(ñu)-ŋañu	to gather a little firewood
Uma	me-kayu	to gather firewood
Bare'e	me-kaju	to fetch wood
Tae'	me-kayu	look for firewood

7800

PWMP *pa-ŋahiw one who gathers firewood (?)

WMP
Ifugaw	pa-ŋaíw-an ~ pa-ŋayú-an	place where firewood is taken
Aklanon	pa-ŋahóy	to gather/collect wood
Cebuano	pa-ŋáhuy	cut down and gather firewood
Binukid	pa-ŋayu	to get, gather firewood
Mapun	pa-ŋayu-hun	use the wood as fuel (imper.)
Ngaju Dayak	pa-ŋañu	one who likes to gather firewood

7801

PWMP *sa-ŋ-kahiw (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Ilokano	sa-ŋa-káyo	one piece (of cloth)
Kadazan Dusun	s<in>aŋ-kazu	made or carved from one tree
Toba Batak	saŋ-hau	a piece, a sheet (of paper)
Tae'	saŋ-kayu tallaŋ	a bamboo stool

7802

PAN *k<um>aSiw (gloss uncertain)

Formosan
Paiwan	k<m>asiw	to use wood; put boards on

7803

PMP *k<um>ahiw (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Isneg	k<um>áyo	the cassava, manioc or tapioca plant, Manihot utilissima Rohl.
Ifugaw	k<um>áiw ~ k<um>áyu	the plant becomes wood
Tontemboan	k<um>ayu	become woody or hard

7804

PWMP *ka-kahiw-an woods, forest

WMP
Itbayaten	ka-kayoh-an	woods, forest
Ilokano	ka-kay-káyw-an	woods; forested area; jungle of trees
Bikol	ka-kahóy-an	forest, woods; grove, thicket, clump of trees
Masbatenyo	ka-kahúy-an	woodlands, forest, grove, thicket
Aklanon	ka-kahóy-an	forest, jungle
Cebuano	ka-kahúy-an	woods
Tausug	ka-kahuy-an	an area covered with trees, woody place
Kadazan Dusun	ko-kozuv-an	forest area or jungle
Old Javanese	ka-kayw-an	trees
Javanese	ke-kayo-n	wooded area
Sasak	ke-kayo-n	fruit trees
Tontemboan	ka-kayu-n	place where a garden used to be but that is now covered with trees again

7805

PWMP *kahiw-an wooded area, forest

WMP
Ibaloy	kiyew-an	communal forest, place to get wood for fuel and lumber for house construction (all forest not owned by someone belongs to the community, and anyone can get wood and forest products there)
Tagalog	kahúy-an	woodland, woods
Maranao	kayo-an	timbered land, forest
Ngaju Dayak	kayu-an	thicket, woods
Old Javanese	kaywan, kayon	trees

7806

PAN *kaSiw-en (gloss uncertain)

Formosan
Paiwan	kasi-kasiv-en	forest

7807

PWMP *kahiw-en (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Ilokano	kayu-en	to cut into firewood
Cebuano	kahúy-un	coarse, like wood
Tausug	kahuy-un	to use something as firewood
Mongondow	kayu-on	bush, forested area

7808

PAN *kaSi-kaSiw wooded, having lots of trees

Formosan
Pazeh	kahu-kahuy-an	forest
Puyuma	kawi-kawi	forest, a lot of wood
Paiwan	kasi-kasiw	woodlands (as opposed to grasslands; emphasis on land use)

7809

PMP *kahi-kahiw wooded, having lots of trees

WMP
Itbayaten	kayo-kayoh	trees
Isneg	kay-kayó	tree
Cebuano	kahuy-káhuy	kind of weed roughly resembling a full grown tree in structure, growing up to one and one half feet, the leaves of which are used as a poultice to stop bleeding
Ma'anyan	ka-kau	tree
Malay	kayu-kayu-an	various kinds of wood
Simalur	aeu-aeu	wood
	mal-aeu-aeu	gather firewood
Karo Batak	kayu-kayu	a piece of wood; all kinds of wood
Old Javanese	kayu-kayu	trees
Sangir	ka-kalu-aŋ	young forest
Buginese	aju-kaju-ŋ	all sorts of wood

7810

POC *kayu-kayu forest, wooded area

OC
Aua	ai-ai	tree
Kwaio	ʔai-ʔai	tall and thin
Wayan	vī-kai-kai	bush, forest, woods

Note: Also Tsou evi, Kanakanabu kaálu ‘tree; firewood’. Most Oceanic reflexes of this form have reduced it to either kai or kau, but the occurrence of both variants in closely related languages as Wayan and Bauan Fijian shows that the fuller form *kayu was found in POc, an inference that is further confirmed by a few of the languages of the western Solomons. Although the basic meaning of this word clearly was ‘wood’ (with *puqun kahiw meaning ‘tree’ in PMP), some figurative meanings are fairly widespread, as with ‘stiff (of muscles, back, etc.) in Cebuano, Ngadha, Sa'a, and Hawaiian. The connection with ‘cloth’ in Ilokano, Nias, Balinese and Muna probably arose through protohistoric trade contacts in which bolts of cloth were stored on sticks or racks. Ilokano sa-ŋa-káyo ‘one piece (of cloth)’ appears to contain the same numeral ligature found in sa-ŋa-púlo ‘ten’ and sa-ŋa-gasút ‘one hundred’, but the other languages cited point instead to *sa-ŋ-, and the exact form of this reconstruction therefore remains somewhat in doubt.

29934

*kaSkaS scratch up the soil, as a chicken looking for food

6614

PAN *kaSkaS scratch up the soil, as a chicken looking for food

Formosan
Thao	k<m>ashkash	to hoe, as in weeding; scratch up, as a chicken scratching up the soil
	ka-kashkash	rake or hoe used to remove weeds from the garden
Bunun	kaskas-un	to hoe, as in weeding

7161

PMP *kahkah scratch up the soil

WMP
Cebuano	kakha	scrape, scratch out something loose, as a chicken scratching around for food

31618

*kaSu 2sg., you

9764

PAN *kaSu 2sg., you

Formosan
Kanakanabu	ii-kasu	2sg., you

9765

PMP *kahu 2sg., you

WMP
Maranao	kaw	you, thou
Klata	ko	2sg., you
Tring	ko	2sg., you
Berawan (Long Jegan)	kaʔaw	2sg., you/thou
Narum	hããw	2sg., you/thou
Sebop	kaʔuʔ	2sg., you/thou
Kenyah (Long Wat)	kaʔəw	2sg., you/thou
Penan (Long Labid)	kaʔauʔ	2sg., you/thou
Penan (Long Merigam)	kauʔ	2sg., you/thou
Melanau (Mukah)	kaʔaw	2sg., you/thou
Melanau Dalat	kaʔaw	2sg., you/thou
Melanau (Sarikei)	kaw-ən	2sg., you
Lawangan	koo	2sg., you
Iban	kau	2sg., you (impolite)
Malay (Sarawak)	kau	2sg., you/thou
Toba Batak	ho	2sg., you/thou
Rejang	ko	you (used for persons of similar or lower rank, actual, putative or fictional)
Old Javanese	ko	pronoun of the second person: you (generally disparaging or when addressing oneself)
Proto-Sangiric	*kau	you (sg.)
Totoli	kau	2sg., you/thou
Pendau	Ɂoo	2sg., you
Palauan	káu	2nd person sg. emphatic: you
	-kau	2nd person sg. pronominal object: you
Chamorro	hagu	you, emphatic singular
	haw	you – intransitive subject singular pronoun, transitive subject singular pronoun with indefinite object, transitive object singular pronoun
CMP
Manggarai	hau	2sg., you/thou
Rembong	kau	2sg., you/thou
Palu'e	kau	2sg., you/thou
Anakalangu	au	thou
Hawu	au	2sg., you/thou
Rotinese	o	2sg., you/thou
Atoni	hɔ	2sg., you/thou
Tetun	o	you (singular)
Tetun (Dili)	o	2sg., you
Galoli	go	2sg., you/thou
Erai	o	you, your
Talur	go	you
Tugun	o	2sg., you
Boano₂	o	2sg., you
Soboyo	kou	2sg., you
Onin	o	2sg., you
SHWNG
Taba	au	2sg., you/thou
Gimán	au	2sg., you
Buli	au	2sg., you/thou
Irarutu	o	2sg., you/thou
	au	2sg., you
Dusner	au	2sg., you
Wandamen	au	2sg., you
Ron	au	2sg., you
Numfor	au	2sg., you/thou
	au	2sg., you
Pom	au	2sg., you
Marau₁	au	2sg., you
Munggui	au	2sg., you
Woi	au	2sg., you

12502

POC *ko 2sg., you

OC
Andra	ou	2sg., you
Ponam	ou	2sg., you
Tanga	o	you, thou, 2sg.
Vitu	ho	2sg., you
Gilbertese	ko	you, thou; pronoun (objective), thee (joined as suffix to verbs)
Puluwat	wow	2sg., you
Woleaian	go	2nd person singular, you
Mota	ko	2nd person sg., thou, thee; suffixed to verb and preposition
Visina	ko	2sg., you

9766

PAN *i-kaSu 2sg., you

Formosan
Kanakanabu	ii-kasu	2sg., you/thou (Ferrell 1969)

9767

PMP *i-kahu 2sg., you

WMP
Agta (Central Cagayan)	i-ko	2sg., you/thou
Isneg	i-káw ~ kaw	you (2sg.)
Casiguran Dumagat	si-ko	2sg. emphatic
	di-ko	2sg. oblique
Tagalog	i-káw	you (sing.)
Romblomanon	í-kaw	you sg. predicate pronoun
Masbatenyo	i-káw	you sg. This form functions as a pre-predicate personal substitute for a subject AN class noun phrase. A different form occurs following predicates
Aklanon	i-káw	you (singular)
Waray-Waray	i-káw	you
Hiligaynon	i-káw	you (singular second person nominal pronoun)
Palawan Batak	ʔi-kaw	2sg., you/thou
Cebuano	i-káw	you (singular)
Mamanwa	i-ko	2sg., you/thou
Binukid	si-kaw	2sg. emphatic: you
Mansaka	i-kaw ~ kaw	2sg. topic
Manobo (Sarangani)	n-ikaw	2sg., unfocused subject pronoun
Tausug	i-kaw	2sg. topic pronoun, you (sg.); the emphatic second person sg. pronoun
Tombonuwo	i-kaw	2sg., you/thou
Ida'an Begak	i-kow	2sg., you/thou
Bisaya (Lotud)	ikaw	2sg., you
Bisaya (Limbang)	i-kaw	2sg., you/thou
Lun Dayeh	i-ko	2sg., you/thou
Kelabit	i-ko	2sg., you/thou
Kenyah (Long Anap)	i-koʔ	2sg., you/thou
Bintulu	i-kaw	2sg., you/thou
Kejaman	i-kaw	2sg., you/thou
Ngaju Dayak	i-kaw	2sg., you/thou
Kapuas	ikaw	2sg., you
Taboyan	i-ko	2sg., you/thou
Malay	eŋkau	thou; you; outside literature the word is used only to inferiors; in literature it occurs as an ordinary pronoun of the second person without a suggestion of disrespect
Mongondow	i-kow	2sg., you/thou
Uma	i-ko	2sg. independent pronoun
Bare'e	si-ko	2sg., used with equals and inferiors
	i si-ko	2sg. (emphatic)
Tae'	i-ko	2sg., used with equals and inferiors
Mori Atas	iko	you (familiar)
Moronene	i-koʔo	2sg., you
Buginese	i-ko	2sg., you/thou
CMP
Lamboya	y-au	thou

9768

POC *iko 2sg., you

OC
Mussau	io	2sg. independent subject pronoun
Bauro	igo	2sg., you
Mota	in-iko	2sg., you
Tasmate	n-iko	2sg., you
Malmariv	iŋko	2sg., you
Tambotalo	iko	2sg., you
Wayan	i-ko	second person singular marker: you, occurring as the head-word or nucleus of a noun phrase which typically is the topic of a clause
Fijian	i-ko	cardinal pronoun, 2nd person singular. This form is always used after transitive verbs and preposition, never as subject of a verb, except in sai iko, ‘it is you’

9769

PWMP *s-ikaw 2sg., you

WMP
Atta (Pamplona)	sikaw	2sg., you
Casiguran Dumagat	siko	2sg. emphatic pronoun
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	sikew	2s., topic case pronoun
Petapa Taje	siɁoo	2sg., you
Bare'e	siko	2sg., you

Note: Also Bunun asu, Simalur Ɂo, Old Javanese ko-ŋ, Chamorro hao, Manggarai gau ‘2sg., you’. This comparison raises several questions. First, PAn *iSu is already a well-established reconstruction for the 2sg independent pronoun, supported by at least a small subset of Formosan and Philippine languages. This has long raised the question what functional difference might have distinguished these two partially identical forms. Blust (1977:8) suggested that *i-kaSu was a polite substitute for *iSu, and Ross (2006:539-540) has tentatively accepted this interpretation, suggesting that it contains a prefix *ka- which has the same origin as the initial consonant of *k-ita ‘we pl. incl.’, *k-ami ‘we pl. excl.’ and the like. However, the appearance of Bunun asu raises the prospect that the base might have been vowel-initial.

Entirely apart from these issues, a few languages in Borneo, representing the Kenyah and Melanau groups, appear to retain a reflex of the medial consonant as glottal stop, although the expected -h- in Philippine languages that retain this phoneme is nowhere present. Finally, in many languages the personal article *i, used with first and second persons, has fossilized on the base, largely because *h tended to drop, and when the resulting sequence –au resyllabified as –aw, it produced a monosyllabic content morpheme that is highly disfavored in most Austronesian languages. Note that Sarawak Malay kau appears to be disyllabic, and that the Kenyah, BERAW and Melanau forms, which retain a disyllabic reflex of the base, do not have a fossilized article attached. The fossilized article *i- appears to be rare in CMP languages, although Lamboya (western Sumba) y-au regularly reflects PMP *i-kahu.

Dempwolff (1938) assigned reflexes of POc *koe/i-koe to PMP *kahu, but the morphological relationship of these forms has never been satisfactorily explained (the similar shape of Old Javanese ko-we ‘2sg.’, cited by Dempwolff, presumably is convergent). Pawley (1972:62) posited POc *i-koe ‘1sg. focal pronoun’, POc *iko, *koe ‘1sg. object pronoun’. Although the latter may be a shortened form of *i-koe, it is compared directly with PMP *i-kahu here, since this is formally and semantically straightforward.

31663

*kata sound of rapid talking

9820

PPh *kata sound of rapid talking

WMP
Ilokano	katá	sound of a restive crowd
	k<um>ata-katá	to make the sound of a restive crowd
Cebuano	káta	for sounds to be rapid, in quick succession (as in someone speaking a foreign language very fast); make a series of sharp short sounds in quick succession (as a machine gun rattling)

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

26672

*katadu large green hairless stinging caterpillar

3132

PMP *katadu large green hairless stinging caterpillar [doublet: *tatadu]

WMP
Tboli	ketolu	caterpillar, about six inches long, smooth skin, bright green color with red markings
Karo Batak	ketadu	name for green, hairless caterpillars of which some, like the ketadu laŋkam, can sting badly if they are touched
CMP
Kodi	kataru muru	kind of green snake
Kambera	kataru	caterpillar; snake

31849

*katae free side of canoe, opposite the outrigger

10047

POC *katae free side of canoe, opposite the outrigger

OC
Gedaged	atai	the projecting part of the platform of a canoe opposite the outrigger float
Gilbertese	katea ^<M	side of canoe opposed to the side facing outrigger
Mota	gatae	the free side of a canoe, where the outrigger is not
Fijian	katā	the larger section of a double outrigger canoe
Tongan	katea ^<M	main part of canoe as distinguished from the hama (outrigger)

Note: Also Samoan atea ‘on the hull (i.e. lee) side of a canoe, as opposed to ama, the outrigger (the weather side)’, Hawaiian Ɂākea ‘starboard or outer hull of a double canoe’. This comparison is extracted from Pawley and Pawley (1998:193), who propose POc doublets *katae and *katea. However, the latter variant depends crucially on the comparison of Central Pacific forms and Gilbertese katea (which may be a Polynesian loan) with a doubly-irregular Manam form eteɁa ‘port side of canoe’.

30085

*kataman door, doorway

6801

PMP *kataman door, doorway

WMP
Kayan	ketamen	door, doorway
OC
Nauna	karam	door, doorway
Lou	karam	door, doorway
Nali	karam	door, doorway
Mussau	atama-na	its door (opening)
Emira	atama	door
Vitu	hatama	door, entrance
Kove	atama	door
Kayupulau	atama	door opening
Yotefa	atama	door opening
Marshallese	kōjām	door, doorway; entrance; gate
Chuukese	asam(a)	doorway, door opening
Puluwat	yaham	door, doorway, window
Ngwatua	katama	door
Marino	gatama	door

Note: Kayan ketamen ‘door, doorway’ shows unexplained e for expected a in the final syllable.

26673

*katambak fish sp.

3133

PWMP *katambak fish sp.

WMP
Cebuano	katambak	kind of fish
Mansaka	katambak	kind of saltwater fish
Malay	ikan ketambak	pomfret: Stromateus niger

Note: Also Sama Linungan kutambak ‘sea perch (some kinds)’.

32672

*katana the castor bean plant: Ricinus communis L.

11073

PPh *katana the castor bean plant: Ricinus communis L.

WMP
Ivatan	katana	the castor bean plant: Ricinus communis L.
Bontok	katana	the castor bean plant: Ricinus communis L.

Note: This comparison is taken from Madulid (2001), and has not been confirmed with primary sources.

32019

*kataŋ crab sp.

10247

PPh *kataŋ crab sp.

WMP
Yami	kataŋ	type of crab --- can be cooked to eat
Itbayaten	kataŋ	edible fresh water mud crab
Tagalog	katáŋ	small freshwater crab
Bikol	katáŋ	large black saltwater crab
Cebuano	katáŋ	edible freshwater crab growing to 4” by 3”, dark browning-green in color

31900

*kataŋan a tree: Jatropha curcas L.

10111

PWMP *kataŋan a tree: Jatropha curcas L.

WMP
Maranao	kataŋan-taŋan	small medicinal tree used for fence: Jatropha curcas L.
Sasak (Sewela)	kətaŋan	a tree used for hedges: Jatropha curcas L.

Note: This reconstruction is problematic. The Jatropha curcus is said to be native to the tropical Americas, suggesting that it was introduced into insular Southeast Asia after Spanish or Portuguese contact. However, if this was the case the normal expectation would be that cognates would be found in Tagalog or Cebuano (the languages through which Spanish penetration of the Philippines began), or in Malay (the language through which Portuguese penetration of insular Southeast Asia south of the Philippines began). However, no such forms are found. Since Madulid (2001) lists a reflex of *kataŋan only for Maranao, the distribution looks like that of a native form that has survived in very few languages.

32020

*kataŋ-kataŋ bob on the surface of the water; float

10248

PPh *kataŋ-kataŋ bob on the surface of the water; float

WMP
Itbayaten	mag-kataŋ-kataŋ	to drift, as someone in a boat who is lost at sea
Ibatan	kataŋ-kataŋ	to drift at sea in a boat
Ilokano	ag-kátaŋ-kátaŋ	to drift, randomly float; to not have a permanent house to live in; to live from house to house
Bikol	mag-katáŋ-kátaŋ	to bob on the surface of the water

31691

*katapa frigate bird

9855

POC *katapa frigate bird

OC
Lou	karap	frigate bird
Loniu	katah	frigate bird
Nali	karah	sea eagle
Bipi	katah	frigate bird
Aua	aʔafa	frigate bird
Pohnpeian	kasap	frigate bird
Mokilese	kajap	frigate bird
Rotuman	ʔafaha	frigate bird; kite (toy)
Rennellese	kataha	frigate bird or least man-o’-war bird: Fregata ariel ariel Gray, appreciated as food, formerly believed the embodiment of Tehainga’atua (one of the most prominent sky gods), and his offspring

Note: Also Palauan kədām ‘frigate bird; kite (i.e. child’s toy)’, Samoan Ɂātafa ‘frigate bird’. This reconstruction was proposed by Clark (2011:358) on the basis of a larger set of forms, a number of which are irregular.

31786

*katapaŋ tree sp.

9964

PMP *katapaŋ tree sp.

WMP
Tagalog	katápaŋ	a tree: Lithocarpus jordanae (Laguna) Rehd. Fagaceae
Malagasy	hatafana	a large tree, the kernel of whose fruit is edible: Terminalia catappa
Malay	kətapaŋ	Indian almond tree: Terminalia catappa
Toba Batak	hatapaŋ	tree with almond-like fruits
Old Javanese	katapaŋ	the Indian almond tree, Terminalia catappa
Sasak	kətapaŋ	name of a tree
OC
Futunan	katafa	a plant, Asplenium sp.
Tuvaluan	lau katafa	plant sp, birdnest fern: Asplenium nidus

Note: Also Balinese katapiŋ ‘almond’. This comparison, first proposed by Dempwolff (1938) is hard to dismiss outright because of the length of the form and phonological agreement among a number of languages. Nonetheless, its referent remains obscure, since the Terminalia catappa is clearly represented by PMP *talisay, and none of the other meanings attested so far agree with one another. Moreover, Polynesian forms such as Futunan katafa and Tuvaluan lau katafa appear to derive from the word for ‘frigate bird’.

32021

*katawa castor bean: Ricinus communis L.

10249

PAN *katawa castor bean: Ricinus communis L.

Formosan
Amis	katawa	castor oil plant, castor bean
Puyuma	katawa-tawaʔay	castor bean: Ricinus communis
WMP
Ivatan	katawa	castor bean: Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Isneg	katawá	the castor-oil plant: Ricinus communis L.; its oil is used as a cosmetic for the hair
Kankanaey	katawwá	castor oil plant: Ricinus communis L.
Subanon	katawa	Crotalaria mucronata Desv., Fabaceae (Madulid 2001)

Note: Also Amis katawa-ay ‘castor oil plant’. The castor seed contains ricin, one of the deadliest poisons in Nature. The Crotalaria is reportedly harmless to humans, but some varieties are poisonous to animals, toxicity presumably being the linking theme between these otherwise distinct plants.

26674

*katawan fish sp.

3134

PMP *katawan fish sp.

WMP
Palauan	kədáol	squirrel-fish
OC
Arosi	ʔawa	fish sp.
Gilbertese	katawa	surgeonfish; unicorn fish

31951

*káti domestic fowl used as a decoy or lure to capture wild fowl

10170

PPh *káti domestic fowl used as a decoy or lure to capture wild fowl [disjunct: *kátiq]

WMP
Kankanaey	na-káti	alike, resembling one another
Casiguran Dumagat	kate	to set the balaybay snare (type of snare with several rattan loops set around a tame rooster, used to catch a wild rooster in the jungle)
Ibaloy	kati	rooster that is trained to lure sabag wild roosters (usually small size since the sabag might not fight a big rooster); the kati is tied so that when the sabag approaches to fight it is snared (done at dawn)
	me-ŋeti	to hunt using a kati rooster lure
Ayta Abellan	kati	to trap wild chickens
Cebuano	káti	decoy
	pa-ŋáti	decoy, lure in fishing
	katih-an	decoy, lure in fishing
Binukid	kati	to lure, attract (an animal or bird) with food, etc.
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kati	to catch a wild animal or bird by using another to attract him; to catch a criminal by using someone, perhaps a member of his family, as bait to attract him
	keti-yan	the one which is used for “bait”
Mansaka	kati	to lure
Tiruray	kati	a bird put out as a lure to trap a wild bird in a snare; to lure

Note: Mapun ŋati ‘to entice an animal with a like animal in order to trap it (as in using a tame chicken to catch a wild one)’, and Yakan ŋati ‘to lure something (as birds, beetles, using another bird or beetle of the kind one wants to catch)’, katih-an ‘a decoy to lure a bird’, are assumed to be loanwords from a Greater Central Philippines language.

30502

*kati₁ exhortation to call a person or animal

7731

PAN *kati₁ exhortation to call a person or animal

Formosan
Amis	kati	exhortation to call a person or animal
CMP
Rotinese	kati	to call a dog (esp. while hunting)
Tetun	kati asu	to call the dogs
Wetan	kati	to call pigs
Yamdena	kati	calling of dogs

Note: Also Tae' katiɁ ‘exhortative call to someone who is walking in front’.

32022

*kati₂ to bite

10250

POC *kati₂ to bite

OC
Tolai	kat	to gnaw to bits, bite into pieces, pull off the husk of a nut with the teeth
Motu	kasi	to snap with the teeth
Mota	gat	to chew

Note: As obverved by Ross and Osmond (2016:266-267), many forms that might be assigned to *kati can equally well be assigmed to *kaRat-i, since reflexes are found in languages that have lost *R and contracted the resulting sequence of like vowels. The present comparison depends critically on Tolai and Motu, both of which normally reflect *R as r. By contrast Mota, like many languages of Vanuatu, reflects *R unpredictably as r or zero (Geraghty 1990).

31814

*katik high-pitched sound of striking against something hard but not resonant

10005

PMP *katik high-pitched sound of striking against something hard but not resonant

WMP
Tausug	mag-katik	to drum (with a small stick or fingers)
CMP
Kambera	katiku	to rap, tap, knock
Asilulu	katik	sound of a rap on a plate or a seashell

Note: With root *-tik₂ ‘ticking sound’.

31815

*katimun tree sp.

10006

PMP *katimun tree sp.

WMP
Sasak	kətimun-an	tree with fragrant wood
CMP
Tetun	katimun	a tree with medicinal bark
Buruese	katimun	a tree

Note: Apparently distinct from *katimun ‘cucumber’, since the reference in both Tetun and Buruese is to a tree, not to a member of the Cucurbitaceae, which are ground-based plants with no woody stem.

31950

*kátiq domestic fowl used as a decoy or lure to capture wild fowl

10168

PPh *kátiq domestic fowl used as a decoy or lure to capture wild fowl [disjunct: *káti]

WMP
Kankanaey	na-káti	alike, resembling one another
Casiguran Dumagat	kate	to set the balaybay snare (type of snare with several rattan loops set around a tame rooster, used to catch a wild rooster in the jungle)
Ibaloy	kati	rooster that is trained to lure sabag wild roosters (usually small size since the sabag might not fight a big rooster); the kati is tied so that when the sabag approaches to fight it is snared (done at dawn)
	me-ŋeti	to hunt using a kati rooster lure
Tagalog	katíʔ	decoy; any person or thing used to entice or lure
Hanunóo	kátiʔ	decoy wild cock
Aklanon	kátiʔ	to decoy, entice (like using one chicken to catch another)
	kati-án	decoy; “stool-pigeon”
Maranao	katiʔ	bantam

10169

PPh *pa-ŋátiq domestic chicken used as a decoy to attract a wild fowl into a trap

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	pa-ŋate	the tame rooster which is staked to the ground inside the snare (the bait that attracts wild chickens into the trap)
Hanunóo	pa-ŋátiʔ	decoy wild cock

30757

*katiR canoe hull, small outrigger canoe

8452

PMP *katiR canoe hull, small outrigger canoe

WMP
Tagalog	kátig	outrigger of a small boat
	k<um>átig	to support, endorse; be in favor of, to back or second
	katíg-an	to support, endorse
Bikol	kátig	bamboo outrigger of a boat
Hanunóo	kátig	outrigger
Romblomanon	kātig	bamboo outrigger of a boat; boats with outriggers
Masbatenyo	kátig	outrigger
	katig-ón	outrigger material (refers to something from which to make an outrigger, as bamboo)
Aklanon	kátig	outrigger (of a boat)
Waray-Waray	katig	bamboo outrigger of a boat or canoe
Agutaynen	kasil	the long outrigger of a boat
Cebuano	kátig	float of an outrigger; provide a boat with outriggers
Maranao	katig	outrigger
Malay	perahu (ber)-katir	catamaran
	bataŋ katir	outrigger attachment to a catamaran
Acehnese	kati	the outrigger floats of a canoe
Old Javanese	katir	outrigger of a jukuŋ
	a-katir	to use as an outrigger
Javanese	katir	outrigger of an outrigger canoe
Sasak	kantir	outrigger on a canoe
Mongondow	kasig	long bamboo or outrigger boom of a boat used to prevent capsizing

10106

POC *katiR (small) outrigger canoe or canoe hull

OC
Lavongai	kati	large outrigger canoe 50 or more feet in length
Mutu	kat	outrigger platform
Kairiru	qat	outrigger canoe
Manam	kati	outrigger canoe
	kati	outrigger canoe
Motu	asi	hull of large multi-hulled canoe (finished more roughly than single-hulled canoe); large canoe
	asi	hull of large multi-hulled canoe; large canoe
Roro	ahi	canoe hull

Note: This comparison was proposed by Pawley and Pawley (1998:180-81).

31879

*katita putty nut: Parinari laurinum

10086

POC *katita putty nut: Parinari laurinum

OC
Lou	kerit	putty nut: Parinari laurinum
Drehet	ketik	putty nut: Parinari laurinum
Likum	ketik	putty nut: Parinari laurinum
Mendak	kərət	putty nut: Parinari laurinum
Tolai	katita	putty nut: Parinari laurinum
Wogeo	kətita	putty nut: Parinari laurinum

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2008), who noted that some witnesses reflect *katita, while others (the majority) reflect *qatita. He assigned Lou kerit to the former variant, but since it is ambiguous for *q or *k, the evidence supporting *katita depends almost entirely on Drehet and Likum in the Admiralties together with Tolai in New Britain and Wogeo on the north coast of New Guinea.

31642

*katkat₁ to lift, raise up

9797

PWMP *katkat₁ to lift, raise up

WMP
Yami	katkat	to lift up (as in raising the foot)
Itbayaten	ma-katkat	to be lifted or raised
Ibatan	katkat	to lift up, pick up (someone
Kadazan Dusun	kakat	to lift, carry
	k<um>akat	to raise by itself
Murut (Timugon)	kakat	the time or reason that something is lifted
	kakat-kakat	to lift repeatedly, climb repeatedly

9798

PWMP *kakat-en to be lifted

WMP
Itbayaten	katkat-en	to lift s.t. a little, to lift up
Kadazan Dusun	kakat-on	to be lifted
Murut (Timugon)	kakat-on	something that is lifted up or stood up

31643

*katkat₂ come undone, of stitches

9799

PAN *katkat₂ come undone, of stitches

Formosan
Thao	katkat	stitches, zipper
	mu-katkat	to come undone, of stitches
	pu-katkat	to remove stitches from a sewn article of apparel
WMP
Cebuano	katkát	undo something sewn or crocheted

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31978

*katou kind of hermit crab

10202

POC *katou kind of hermit crab

OC
Arosi	kawou	a hermit crab
Mota	gatou	hermit crab
Tamambo	hatou	hermit crab
Raga	gatpi	hermit crab

Note: A slightly larger version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (2011:171).

26675

*katud plant sp.

3135

PWMP *katud plant sp.

WMP
Ilokano	katúd	a decumbent, strigillose, composite herb with reddish stems and ovoid heads of white flowers: Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.
Malay	katut selaya	a plant: Breynia discigera

31816

*katúday a plant: Sesbania grandiflora

10007

PPh *katúday a plant: Sesbania grandiflora

WMP
Ilokano	katúday	tree with large white edible flowers: Sesbania grandiflora
Isneg	katúday	a tree: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.; flowers and pods are used for vegetables
Kapampangan	kature	a tree: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. (Madulid 2001)
Aklanon	katúray	tree with edible blossoms: Sesbania grandiflora
Maranao	katoray	a tree: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.

26676

*katuk knock

3136

PMP *katuk knock [doublet: *ketik]

WMP
Tagalog	katók	sharp knock; rap
Cebuano	katuk	conk someone on the head
Malay	katok	rapping, hammering off, as one knocks barnacles off planking
Old Javanese	a-kaṭuk	to chatter (of the teeth)?
OC
Manam	katuk	knock against

32023

*katúk knock on the head; crazy, insane

10251

PPh *katúk knock on the head; crazy, insane

WMP
Ilokano	katók	crazy
Bikol	katók	crazy
	maka-katók	to go crazy
Aklanon	katók	crazy
Cebuano	katúk	conk someone on the head; become stupid, slow to understand and lacking in sense (as if having been hit on the head)

Note: Said to be a Tagalog loan in Ilokano and Aklanon, but Panganiban (1966) and English (1985) give Tagalog katók only in the meaning.’shark knock; rap’. With monosyllabic root *-tuk₂ ‘knock, pound, beat’.

31787

*kau₁ lime, coral limestone

9965

POC *kau₁ lime, coral limestone [doublet: *qapuR]

OC
Gedaged	kau	lime made from coral, oyster shells, etc., and used in chewing betel nuts
Arosi	kau	branching coral burnt for lime

Note: Also Arosi gau ‘branching coral’.

31832

*kau₂ to catch, as with a hook

10028

POC *kau₂ to catch, as with a hook

OC
Manam	kau	to catch something with a hook
	kau-la	a fish hook
Keapara	kau	hook
Bugotu	kau	to be caught, hung up, entangled
Nggela	kau	to stick fast, as a spear, ball in a tree, hook on rock; entangled, as a line around rocks; to hook
	kau-li	to stick in
	kau-vagi	cause to stick
Lau	kau	to be caught in, as hook in mouth
'Āre'āre	kau-a	to hook, catch hold of
Sa'a	käu ~ käukeu	to clutch hold of, of thorny creepers; to catch old of with a crook
	i-keu	to pull a thing out of the eye
Arosi	kau	to catch and hold, as a shirt in a nail; a crook for pulling down fruit; a thorny, flax-like plant
	kau-haʔi	to catch on, be hooked by
Mota	kau	to catch hold, as with a claw
	kau-t	to catch hold and pluck

Note: This word seems clearly to have been a verb, and is apparently distinct from PMP *kawil ‘fish hook’ (cp. Arosi kawi ‘a hook’).

31692

*kaubebe butterfly

9856

POC *kaubebe butterfly

OC
Mussau	kaubebe	butterfly
Motu	kaubebe	butterfly

Note: Also Mussau kurubebe ‘butterfly’. Presumably from an *qali/kali- variant of a base *bebe, and possibly a product of convergence.

26678

*kauŋ reverberate, of a sound

3138

PMP *kauŋ reverberate, of a sound [doublet: *rauŋ 'howl, cry out']

WMP
Kapampangan	kauŋ	bark of a dog
Cebuano	kauŋ	make a hollow sound when empty
Iban	kauŋ	shouting
CMP
Yamdena	kau	to howl, of dogs
OC
Nggela	kau	dog

Note: Also Gedaged gaun ‘dog’.

31664

*kaup handful of something

9821

PWMP *kaup handful of something

WMP
Yami	kaop	grab a handful
Malay	kaup	scraping in with the hand; skimming (of scraping along the surface, e.g. with a crumb-scoop; skimming off broth or cream, etc.

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

30086

*kauru bamboo sp.

6802

POC *kauru bamboo sp.

OC
Ahus	kaur	bamboo
Sori	kaur	kind of large bamboo
Mussau	kauru	kind of large bamboo, used in making combs
Tolai	kaur	bamboo
Lakalai	la kauru	large bamboo, imported from the Tolai area

Note: Osmond and Pawley (2011) attempt to derive this form from PAn *qauR, but a number of divergent Oceanic languages reflect a form with initial *k, *r rather than *R, and a final vowel. Given these multiple discrepancies it seems best to distinguish the two forms.

26677

*kaus scrape

3137

PWMP *kaus scrape

WMP
Bontok	káʔus	to scrape smooth, of wooden objects, not bamboo
Iban	kaus	scrape out (a pan, the pulp of a cucumber), rake and throw out (earth, as for planting)

33156

*kauS scoop up, as with a fish net

11654

PAN *kauS scoop up, as with a fish net

Formosan
Kavalan	sa-kaus-an	a tool to scoop earth, grass
Thao	ka-kaush	water scoop, ladle for dipping up water
	kau-kaush	scoop repeatedly, make repeated scooping movements
Paiwan	kaus	scoop net (for fishing or catching butterflies)

11655

PAN *k<um>auS to scoop up, as with a fish net

Formosan
Kavalan	k<m>aus	to scoop earth, grass
Thao	k<m>aush	to scoop up, ladle up
Paiwan	k<m>aus	to use a scoop-net; to ‘fish’ out meat from soup with a spoon

26680

*kawa spider

3140

PWMP *kawa spider [doublet: *lawa]

WMP
Bontok	kawa	spider
Malay (Jakarta)	kawè-kawè	spider
Balinese	ke-kawa	spider

31979

*kawa-kawa rock cod, grouper sp.

10203

POC *kawa-kawa rock cod, grouper sp.

OC
Gitua	kawa-kawa	golden trevally
Dobuan	kawa (tabuya)	rock cod, coral cod, reef cod, coral trout
Wayan	kawa-kawa	a small striped fish, possibly a rock cod (Serranidae sp.); poisonous, not eaten
Fijian	kawa-kawa	a fish, the yellow-finned grouper, Serranidae

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond (2011:66).

26681

*kawaŋ apart, separated

3141

PWMP *kawaŋ apart, separated [doublet: *awaŋ 'open space']

WMP
Sambal (Tina)	kawáŋ	gap, hollow
Tagalog	káwaŋ	apart, detached, unhinged; fissure, crack
Maranao	kawaŋ	atmosphere, air
Kayan	kawaŋ	slit or space between; large mesh of net; make a space bigger
Malagasy	hávana	that which is void or open (open space in an assembly, etc.)

Note: Sundanese gawaŋ ‘interspace, distance between two points; cleft, crevice’ apparently belongs here rather than with *gawaŋ ‘gate, opening’ (Blust 1973). For the common interchange of g and k in WMP languages cf. Blust (1996a).

31665

*kawaq cauldron; caldera, volcanic crater (?)

9822

PWMP *kawaq cauldron; caldera, volcanic crater (?)

WMP
Ilokano	káwa	large kettle for making sinublán (sugarcane juice) or bási (sugarcane wine)
Bikol	káwaʔ	cauldron; a large Chinese wok
Hanunóo	káwaʔ	a large cooking vessel or kettle, especially of trade origin
Cebuano	káwaʔ	a broad, deep pan without a handle used for stewing, made of cast iron
	kawaʔ-káwaʔ	concave depression on the ground roughly having a depth and diameter of a káwaɁ
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kawaʔ	a very large frying pan around 18” to 24” in diameter
Tiruray	kawaʔ	a large kettle or vat with no handle
Tausug	kawaʔ	a large, round-bottomed cauldron (of different shape and larger than the kawaliɁ)
Kadazan Dusun	kavaʔ	a big wok
Tombonuwo	kawaʔ	large wok
Ngaju Dayak	kawah	large iron cooking pot in which one can cook 15-30 gantangs of rice at once
Iban	kawah	large cooking pan, usually iron
Malay	kawah	vat; cauldron; crater; large boiler, e.g. vat for preparing gambier, or cauldron for boiling rice to feed large numbers of men; natural feature suggesting a cauldron, e.g. the vortex of a whirlpool, an extinct crater or “devil’s punchbowl”
Sundanese	kawah	a large and deep pit; volcanic crater (both of an extinct volcano and an active one); large cooking pan
	kawah-an	have a crater
Old Javanese	kawah	cauldron, cauldron of hell (in which the souls are punished); hell
Javanese	kawah	volcanic crater
Balinese	kawah	hell, where souls are punished for sins before being reborn

Note: Also Tagalog káwa ‘a large caldron; a large boiler or kettle’, Hanunóo káwa ‘a large cooking vessel or kettle, especially of trade origin’. Dempwolff (1938) proposed *kavah ‘pan’. Although it refers to an implement made of iron in most of the modern languages and therefore suggests borrowing, there is no obvious loan source for this word. Tentatively I assume that it referred to a feature of the natural environment that is common to several parts of the Philippines and the Malay archipelago, and then acquired a historically secondary sense of ‘cauldron’ which replaced the original meaning in most languages as a result of borrowing.

31693

*kawar to crawl

9857

POC *kawar to crawl

OC
Dobuan	kawara	to crawl
Molima	kawala	to crawl (as a turtle), to creep
	lo-kawal	to sneak around at night to commit adultery
Gilbertese	kawa ~ kawakawa	to creep, to crawl

29905

(Formosan only)

*kawaS₁ year, season; sky, heaven

6573

PAN *kawaS₁ year, season; sky, heaven

Formosan
Saisiyat	kawaʃ	sky, heaven
Atayal	kawas	year
Seediq	kawas	year
Pazeh	kawas	year; sky, heaven
Amis	kawas	heaven (Ferrell 1969); Kawas-God; gods; spirits, supernatural beings, ghosts’
Thao	kawash	year, season

Note: PAn *kawaS is in competition with *CawiN ‘year’ which, however, is reflected only in southern Taiwan. It is difficult to achieve an adequate gloss for this word, as it apparently represented a concept for which there is no English equivalent, one which combined the notion ‘sky’ as the abode of deities rather than a physical domain (cf. *laŋiC ‘sky’), and at the same time related this feature of Nature to the cycling of the seasons. This word was replaced in PMP by *taqun.

30307

(Formosan only)

*kawaS₂ talk, talk about, discuss

7255

PAN *kawaS₂ talk, talk about, discuss

Formosan
Kavalan	qawas	discuss
	simsa-qawas	to discuss
Pazeh	kawas	word, language; speech
	kalima-kawas	talkative
	mu-kawas	to speak, say, talk
	pa-kawas	Say it!

29844

*kaway₁ wave the hand or arms; call by waving

6469

PMP *kaway₁ wave the hand or arms; call by waving

WMP
Ilokano	kawáy	signal with the hand, wave the hand in greeting or summoning
Tagalog	kawáy	waving of the hand to call or signal someone
Agutaynen	kaway	wave the hand back and forth
Hiligaynon	káway	dangle; wave a hand; wave in the wind
Yakan	kawey	motion with the hand for someone to come toward the speaker
Malagasy	havihavi	oscillation, suspension, hanging
Tonsawang	kawey	to wave, beckon with the hand
CMP
Bimanese	kawe	wave the hand; call by waving the hand

Note: Also Agta (Eastern) káwa-kawa ‘wave the arms around (as the action of a drowning person who is trying to find something to grab onto)’, káwal-kawal ‘swing back and forth’. It is conceivable that this verb derives ultimately from *kaway ‘tentacles of octopus, squid, jellyfish, etc. through reference to the similar motion produced by waving the arms or moving cephalopod tentacles in water.

29845

*kaway₂ tentacles of octopus, squid, jellyfish, etc.

6470

PMP *kaway₂ tentacles of octopus, squid, jellyfish, etc. [disjunct: *gaway]

WMP
Abaknon	kaway	tentacle
Cebuano	kawáy	tentacle

6471

POC *kawe₂ tentacles of octopus, squid, jellyfish, etc.; rays of the sun

OC
Motu	gave	feelers of octopus
Sa'a	ka-kawe	tentacles of octopus; branching of the fingers of the human hand
Marshallese	ko	octopus tentacles; rays of the sun
Chuukese	óó	tentacle of octopus or squid
Tongan	kave	tentacle of cuttlefish or octopus
Samoan	ʔave	tentacle of octopus
Kapingamarangi	gawe bilibili	tentacle of octopus
Maori	kawekawe	tentacles of a cuttlefish; tendrils of a creeper, fringe on a mat, etc.
Hawaiian	ʔawe	tentacle
	ʔaweʔawe	tentacles; runners, as on a vine

Note: Also Cebuano gawáy ‘tentacles’, Sangir kalawe ‘tentacles of a jellyfish’ (< *k-al-away, with plural infix?). Milner (1966) gives Samoan ʔave as a polysemous term meaning ‘sunbeam, ray of sunshine’, ‘ray (as the inflamed ray of a boil)’, and ‘tentacle’, a set of connections that presumably exist because the outspread tentacles of an octopus resemble a sunburst, the diverging rays of sunlight suddenly bursting through rifted storm clouds. Since Abo et al. (1976) give a similar range of meanings for Marshallese ko (ko-in-al ‘rays of the sun’, ko-in-kweet ‘octopus tentacles) it is possible that POc *kawe referred to both. This comparison was first pointed out by Tsuchida (1976:192), who attributes it to a personal communication from Rufus Hendon at Yale University.

30245

(Formosan only)

*kaway₃ net bag used by men for carrying things on back

7118

PAN *kaway₃ net bag used by men for carrying things on back

Formosan
Kavalan	kaway	a men’s carrying bag, net-bag (made from rattan)
	k<um>away	to carry on one’s back
Saisiyat	kaway	net for carrying things on back
Pazeh	kaway- ~ ta-kaway	a bag (made of string) carried on a man’s back

Note: Also Kavalan qaway ‘to carry a baby in a sling/cloth on the side’.

31624

*kawayan bamboo, Bambusa spp., probably Bambusa spinosa

9776

PAN *kawayan bamboo, Bambusa spp., probably Bambusa spinosa

Formosan
Rukai (Budai)	kavaðanə	Bambusa spinosa
Puyuma	kawayan	generic term for bamboo without thorns
Paiwan	kavayan	thorny bamboo (Ho 1978:609)
WMP
Yami	kawalan	bamboo
Itbayaten	kawayan	bamboo
Ivatan	kawayan	bamboo (of large type)
Ilokano	kawáyan	bamboo
	kaw-kawáyan	Panicum crusgalli grass
	ma-ŋawáyan	to cut down bamboo
Isneg	kawáyan	the spiny bamboo, Bambusa blumeana Schultes
Bontok	kawáyan	a kind of bamboo used for making water or wine containers, or used as a carrying bar, Bambusa spp.
Ifugaw	kawáyan	bamboo
Casiguran Dumagat	kawayan	term for bamboos of the genus Bambusa
Umiray Dumaget	kaweyen	bamboo
Ibaloy	kawajan	kind of bamboo that grows in warm places
Pangasinan	kawayá	bamboo
Kapampangan	kawáyan ~ kwáyan	bamboo
Tagalog	kawáyan	bamboo
	kawayan-án	bamboo grove
Bikol	kawáyan	bamboo
Hanunóo	kawáyan	a species of bamboo, Bambusa spinosa Roxb.; this is not a generic term as it is in Tagalog and several other Philippine languages
Aklanon	kawáyan	bamboo: Dendrocalamus merrillianus
Cebuano	kawáyan	general name for bamboo, but most specifically refers to armed species, esp. Bambusa spinosa
	kawayán-un	resembling a bamboo
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kewayan	thorny bamboo, Bambusa spinosa
Mansaka	kawayan	kind of bamboo
Klata	kwaya	bamboo sp.
CMP
Buruese	kawaan	a bamboo, the suaŋgi

Note: The Formosan part of this comparison was first pointed out by Li (n.d.)

32024

*kawe carry, carry away

10252

POC *kawe carry, carry away

OC
Sio	kawe-	snatch, grab something and flee with it
Tikopia	kave	carry, bear off
Samoan	ʔave	give, hand (something to); carry, take (people or things); send (people or things); drive a car, ride a horse
	ʔa-ʔave	to spread (of news and rumors)
	fe-ʔave-aʔi	to carry, transport to and fro
Tuvaluan	ka-kave	carry
Rennellese	ka-kabe	to escort, accompany, take, as in a canoe; to be escorted, taken; to continue, go on
Maori	kawe	carry, convey, bring; go to fetch
	kawe motu	forcible abduction of a woman; an ancient marriage custom

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2016:428). Needless to say, given the evidence presented so far the POc status of this form depends on a single language (Sio), making its status somewhat shaky.

30302

*kawil₁ fishhook

7240

PAN *kawil₁ fishhook

Formosan
Puyuma	kawiɭ	fishhook
WMP
Pangasinan	kawíl	large fishhook
Tagalog	kawíl	fishhook
Aklanon	kawíl	long deep sea fishing line with reel
Waray-Waray	kawíl	hook fishing
Maranao	kawil	flatter, banter, befriend, hook
Tiruray	kawil	a large barbed hook for catching eels; to hook something with any sort of hook
Mapun	kawi	to fish with a pole
Tausug	kawil	large fishhook used for trolling
Iban	kail	fishhook
	gintiʔ ŋail	fish with rod and line
Salako	kai	fish hook
Malay	kail	fishing with rod or handline
	mata kail	fishhook
	kail seluaŋ	‘hooks for the seluaŋ fish’ – name given to a crocodile’s front teeth
Bahasa Indonesia	kail	fishhook
	me-ŋail	to fish with hook and line
Acehnese	kawé	angling; fishing line; fishhook
Karo Batak	kawil	small fishhook
	ŋ-kawil	to fish with hook and line
Toba Batak	hail	fishing with hook and line
Lampung	kawil	fishing pole/line
CMP
Bimanese	havi	fishhook
Lamaholot	kawi	fishhook
Selaru	ail	fishhook
Yamdena	kail	link, as in a chain
Watubela	kaul	hook
Buruese	kawil	fishhook
OC
Lou	ko	fishhook
Penchal	kanin kɨw	fishhook
Loniu	kow	fishhook
Sori	aw	fishhook
Bipi	kaw	fishhook
Wuvulu	awi	fishhook
Numbami	awila	fishhook
Mono-Alu	aili	fishhook
Roviana	gaili	fishhook made from pearl shell (kile), and turtle shell (kapa), used in trolling
Eddystone/Mandegusu	γaili	fishhook made from pearl shell
Zabana	ɣaili	fishhook
Arosi	kawi	a hook; to hang to, as a bat; be hitched, hooked to
	kawi-kawi	to hang, cling to
Haununu	gawi	fishhook

7241

PWMP *ma-ŋawil to fish with hook and line

WMP
Mapun	ŋawi	to fish with a pole
Bahasa Indonesia	me-ŋail	to fish with hook and line
Toba Batak	maŋ-hail	to fish with hook and line
Lampung	ŋawil	to go fishing
Lolak	mo-ŋail	to fish, go fishing

7242

PWMP *pa-ŋawil hook and line fishing

WMP
Aklanon	pa-ŋawíl	to go deep sea fishing
Waray-Waray	pa-ŋawíl	hook fishing
Bahasa Indonesia	pe-ŋail	person who fishes with hook and line; equipment for fishing with hook and line
Karo Batak	peŋ-kawil	fisherman

Note: Also Tanga au-wil ‘fishhook, fishing toggle’, Mbula kwiili ‘fishhook’. The Batak languages show back-formations in prefixation with reflexes of *maŋ- and *paŋ-, as these fail to trigger the expected nasal substitution of a base-initial voiceless obstruent.

26682

*kawil₂ bound together

3142

PWMP *kawil₂ bound together

WMP
Ilokano	kawíl	Dutch wife
	ag-kawíl	to cross the legs; interlace, intertwine
	kawil-en	to hold fast with the legs
Bontok	kawíl	hold together in one hand, as two baskets; carry two babies at the same time
Ngaju Dayak	kawil	what is bound together (as a broken rudder that one repairs by boring holes through each piece and fastening them together)

31703

*kawiŋ link in a chain; joined together, as links in a chain, people in sexual intercourse or marriage; hands joined in crossing pattern in circle dance

9869

PWMP *kawiŋ link in a chain; joined together, as links in a chain, people in sexual intercourse or marriage; hands joined in crossing pattern in circle dance

WMP
Isneg	kawíŋ	safety pin; clip
Pangasinan	kawíŋ	link in a chain; to link with chain or cord
Bikol	kawíŋ	link in a chain
	mag-kawíŋ	to chain
Hanunóo	kawíŋ	coition (canine), mating of dogs
	mag-k<ar>awíŋ-an	mate freely (intensive), of dogs only
Aklanon	káwiŋ	to have intercourse with; fuck; to draw near to, approach
Waray-Waray	kawíŋ-kawíŋ	linked together, like a chain
Maranao	kawiŋ	wed, wedding, betrothed; husband, wife
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kawiŋ	of a bride and groom, to enact the ceremony of exhanging rice which complete the marriage formalities
Tiruray	kawiŋ	to perform the wedding ceremony on a couple
Kayan	kawiŋ	both hands tied together behind; hands crossed, e.g. a mother teaching her child to dance says “likung, kawing, likung” --- dance, cross your hands and dance

Note: Also Kankanaey men-káwin ‘to hold each other by the hand’, Mansaka kawin ‘to hold a wedding ceremony’, Tausug mag-kawin ‘to solemnize a marriage’, Malay kawin ‘marriage, wedlock’. Forms of kawin in the southern Philippines seem clearly to be Malay loanwords, and their similarity to this form is therefore assumed to be due to chance, since Malay kawin is thought to be of Persian origin (Jones 1978).

30303

*kawit hook

7243

PAN *kawit hook [doublet: *kabit₁]

Formosan
Kavalan	m-qawit	to knit or weave
	q<m>awit	to knit
	pa-qawit	to hook; to carry by hanging from the arm
	sapa-qawit-an	a hook
	sim-qawit	to join, to link
Amis	kawit	to knit, crochet; to make nets
	ka-kawit	a small sickle
WMP
Ilokano	káwit	hook
Isneg	káwit	a fishhook that is tied either to a line about two feet long or to a sliver of bamboo, which in turn is attached to a fishing rod; the whole fishing tackle
Itawis	káwit	hook
Bontok	káwit	use a hooked wire to get something out of reach, particularly to unlatch the inner lock of a granary; a piece of wire with a hook on the end
Kankanaey	káwit	to hook; to catch with a hook
Ifugaw	káwit	what has the form of a sickle; first or last quarter of the moon
	kawít-an	cock, so called because his comb is sickle-like
Casiguran Dumagat	kawet	to hand up, to hook, to snag
Ibaloy	kawit	hook (as fish hook, hook used to reach fruit in trees)
Tagalog	káwit	hook; a fastener (as on a necklace); hasp, fastener for a door, window, box; a pole with a curved knife on the end for cutting down coconuts or other fruits
Bikol	káwit	a hook; also describing something shaped like a hook
Hanunóo	káwit	hook, in a general sense
Tboli	kawit	to cling to something, as bats in a cave holding on to one another as links in a chain; to make a chain; to link together
Kadazan Dusun	kavit	hook
	maŋ-avit	to pluck with a hook
	ta-kavit	what can be hooked
Murik	kawit	hook (in general)
Kayan	kawit	hook; barb; loop; hooked stick; a shaman’s set of charms, symbolizing magical powers to hook on to good fortune
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kawit	boat hook; hook used in weaving to pull the thread
Melanau (Mukah)	kawit	pole with a hook for picking fruit
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)	kawit	to hook something (as a fruit with a fruiting pole, or anything to be pulled toward oneself)
Ngaju Dayak	ka-awit	be bent or curved
	kawit	a hook
Malagasy	hávitra	a pointed iron, a poker, a spit; in the provinces a hook, a boat hook
Iban	kait	hook
	te-kait	be hooked or caught in passing, as clothing caught on a thorn
Malay	kait	to hook on to; crook-shaped; crook; of putting bait on a hook, a man caught on thorns in the jungle, a lamb in a tiger’s talons, etc.
Acehnese	kawét	hook, as on clothing
Karo Batak	kawit	hook
	si-kawit-en	hooked together; also an kin relationship based on marriage
Toba Batak	hait	firmly hooked on something; bent like a hook
Old Javanese	kawit	hook
	k<in>awit	to hook
Bare'e	me-kai	be hooked, remain sitting tight
	to-kai	hooked firmly
Mandar	kaiʔ	hooked
	mak-kaiʔ	hook onto something
Buginese	kaiʔ	hook onto something
Muna	kai	hooked, unable to stretch (of elbow, knee); pull with a hook (fruits, fish), hook up
	ka-kai	hook
	kais-i	pull up, hook up (many items)
Chamorro	hagwet	hook; fishhook
CMP
Tetun	kait	curved in the form of a hook; to gather fruit with a hook
Selaru	r-kait	to drag
Yamdena	n-kait	to hook something, fish with a hook; to drag; turn a boat around by paddling
	ka-kait	a hook
Buruese	kawi-k	to hook (as a cat hooking its claws into something)
OC
Arosi	kawi	a hook; to hang to, as a bat; be hitched, hooked to

7244

PWMP *ma-ŋawit to hook, catch with a hook

WMP
Ibaloy	me-ŋewit	to fish using a hook and line
Ngaju Dayak	ma-ŋawit	to hook something, draw something with a hook
Malagasy	ma-navitra	to hook a canoe, an eel or a drowning person
Iban	ŋait	to hook (as a thorn hooking the clothes of a passer-by)
Old Javanese	a-ŋawit	to hook, catch, join by hooking on
Bare'e	moŋ-kai	hook onto something

7245

PWMP *maR-kawit to hook

WMP
Isneg	mag-káwit	an angler who uses a káwit
Casiguran Dumagat	mag-kawet	catch with a hook (as in dragging crabs from their holes by using a hooked wire)
Tagalog	mag-káwit	to hook, fasten with a hook (as a dress)
Bikol	mag-káwit	to hook
Bahasa Indonesia	ber-kait	use a hook
Acehnese	reunoŋ meu-kawét	fruiting pole, pole with a hook at the end for bringing down fruit

7246

PWMP *pa-ŋawit hooked instrument or tool

WMP
Hanunóo	pa-ŋáwit	a hook, i.e. an implement
Kadazan Dusun	paŋ-avit	the thing one uses for hooking, or a hook to be used for plucking
Iban	pe-ŋait	crook, hook (esp. the stick used in the left hand when cutting grass and bushes with a broad heavy knife)

7247

PWMP *kawit-an to hook something

WMP
Ibaloy	kawit-an	to get or catch something by means of a hook of some kind (as clothesline)
Tagalog	kawít-an	to hook up something; to hook onto something (stress is on place of hooking)
Kadazan Dusun	ko-kovit-an	act of hooking, plucking with a hook
Malay	kait-an benaŋ	a hook-shaped tool for gathering up threads in a loom; a stitch

7248

PWMP *kawit-en to hook something

WMP
Ilokano	kawít-en	to hook something
Bontok	kawit-ən	get with a hook
Ibaloy	kewit-en	to hook something
Tagalog	kawít-in	get or take something with a hook
Bikol	kawít-on	be hooked
Kadazan Dusun	kavit-on	be hooked, plucked with a hook
Malagasy	havit-ina	to be hooked, as a canoe by a boathook, or an eel by a fishhook
Karo Batak	kawit-en	ring in the ear from which the red bud at the tip of the fruiting body of the banana plant is hung (women’s earrings)

7249

PWMP *kawit-kawit (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Tagalog	kawit-kawit	hinge
Malay	kait-kait	various plants, as Uncaria ferruginea (a prickly creeper), and Uncaria pteropoda, so called because it is hung over door to catch the trailing entrails of the penanggalan evil spirit
Toba Batak	hait-hait	to hook in order to bring down fruits

Note: Also Ilokano kawʔít ‘hook’, Tagalog kalawit ‘long-handled scythe; hook, drag-hook, grapnel; gaff; a strong hook used for pulling large fish into a boat; a hook for picking coconuts’, Hiligaynon káwʔit ‘hook’, Aklanon káwʔit ‘hook; to hook’, Old Javanese kahit ‘hook’ (said to be from Malay), Manggarai kaét ‘to hook, be hooked to,’ Kambera kaitu, ketu ‘hook’, Tetun kaʔit ‘to hold or pull with a hook’ (at least some of the Lesser Sunda forms may be loans from Malay). The Ngaju Dayak base awit is assumed to be a product of back-formation from *ma-ŋawit, which was ambiguous for a base that began with *k- or *a-. With root *-wit ‘hook-shaped’.

The decision whether certain Oceanic forms which have lost the final consonant should be attributed to *kawil ‘fishhook’ or *kawit ‘hook’ is somewhat difficult, but in many cases reflexes of the former term refer specifically to fishhooks, and reflexes of the latter have a more general reference to hooked structures with no specific reference to fishing. Arosi kawi fits the description of the latter type, and so is included here. Since *-l > t, Chamorro hagwet could reflect either form. It is possible that this word represents both proto-forms, but it is assigned only to *kawit.

33622

*kawitan rooster, cock

12363

PPh *kawitan rooster, cock

WMP
Ilokano	kawítan	rooster, cock (fowl); (slang) penis
Isneg	kawítān	cock, rooster
Bontok	kawítan	rooster
Kankanaey	kawítan	cock; rooster
	i-kawítan	to fight unto death; to combat desperately
Ifugaw (Batad)	awītan	rooster
Casiguran Dumagat	pa-ŋawítan	mature rooster
Ibaloy	kawitan	rooster, cock; male of any fowl
Binukid	balaŋ-kawitan	rooster, cock
	bal-balaŋ-kawitan	cockerel, young rooster

30246

(Formosan only)

*kawkaw₁ sickle for harvesting grain

7119

PAN *kawkaw₁ sickle for harvesting grain

Formosan
Amis	kawkaw	sickle, long-blade knife with curved handle
Amis (Kiwit)	kawkaw	sickle
Thao	kawkaw	turn over harvested crops to allow them to dry in the sun
Puyuma	kawkaw	sickle
Paiwan (Western)	kawkaw	sickle

Note: There is some uncertainty about the PAn status of this form, given the semantic latitude that is allowed in admitting Thao kawkaw into the comparison.

31644

*kawkaw₂ dig a hole, as by scratching

9800

PPh *kawkaw₂ dig a hole, as by scratching

WMP
Itbayaten	mi-chawkaw	to dig a hole by scratching out the earth and the like
Bontok	kawkaw	to make a hole, as a chicken pecking a hole in a sweet potato or a sore which has ulcerated; to dig a hole in the ground

Note: Possible a chance resemblance.

31704

*kaya able, capable, strong, wealthy

9870

PWMP *kaya able, capable, strong, wealthy

WMP
Ilokano	káya	ability to do something
Itawis	káya	to be able to, possible
Bontok	káya	to be sufficient for a task; to be strong enough to do something; to be adequate to accomplish something requiring strength or ability
Kankanaey	k<um>ayá	to be able to sit (applied to children when about three or four months old)
Casiguran Dumagat	káya	able, can do, capable, ability; to be able
Ibaloy	kaya	ability, capability (said to be from Tagalog)
Pangasinan	kaya	advantage, ability to do something
Tagalog	káya	ability; capability; power; competence; capacity; aptitude; facility, the power to do anything easily, quickly and smoothly; attainment; an accomplishment; special skill, power to do something easily; resources; skill in meeting difficulties, getting out of trouble; wherewithal; the means, supplies or money needed; power; ability to do or act
	walaŋ káya	helpless; not able to help oneself
	kayáh-in	to afford; to have the means, strength or time
Bikol	ma-káya	to bear, tolerate, withstand; to be capable of; to have the capacity to do; to manage to do; to cope with or handle
	daʔi ma-káya	incapable or unable to do something
	mag-káya	to withstand, endure; to take or stand (as pain or hard work); to afford to do something
	ka-kayá-an	ability
Cebuano	káya	within one’s ability, easily tackled; within one’s financial capacity to shoulder; to tackle, handle something with ease
	kayá-an	having the means to spend for whatever one likes
Maranao	kaya	rich, wealthy, opulent
Tausug	kaya	energy, force, vigor, strength; wealth, riches, means
	kayah-un	to have energy, force, vigor, strength; have resources, available wealth, or means
Iban	kaya	wealthy, well-to-do; power, might
Malay	kaya	power; wealth
Gayō	kaya	wealthy
Javanese	kaya	income
Balinese	kaya	rich
Mongondow	mo-kaya	wealthy

Note: Also Malagasy hay ‘possible, able to, can be done by’, ma-hay ‘able, clever, competent’. Dempwolff (1938) split this into two distinct comparisons assigned respectively to *kaya₁ ‘property, wealth’, and *kaja₃ ‘possible’, but these appear to be the same form. The glosses of some forms in the southern Philippines and western Indonesia suggest that the original sense, which is strikingly similar to that of *mana in Oceanic languages, may have been reshaped as a result of Malay contact influence. Finally, the effort of Zoetmulder (1982:830) to assign Old Javanese forms such as ma-kāya ‘strongly, with effort’ to a Sanskrit original meaning ‘body; collection, multitude’ seems far-fetched.

31666

*kayab to flap, flutter, wave

9823

PWMP *kayab to flap, flutter, wave

WMP
Ilokano	k<um>áyab	to flutter, flap in the wind
	ag-kayab-káyab	to flutter in the air
Bikol	kayáb	hand fan
	mag-kayáb	to fan
Hanunóo	káyab	fanning motion
	pa-ŋáyab	fan, any fanning device
Cebuano	káyab	for cloth or the like to flap, cause it to do so; raise a flag or unfurl a sail
Binukid	kayab	to flap, flip; to shake (something to remove foreign matter clinging to it); to cause (cloth or the like) to flap
	tag-kayab-kayab	to flap (as a wide dress in the wind)
Mansaka	kayab	to wave; to flap (as piece of cloth in the air)
Proto-Sangiric	*kayab	to fan fire
Sangir	ka-kalabəʔ	fan for fanning the fire
	ma-ŋalabəʔ	to fan the fire
Banggai	kayap	to beckon, wave the hand

Note: Also Timugon Murut kayap ‘to stagger, reel, totter’, Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)) kalab ‘flapping (like a flag or the wings of birds)’.

30634

*kayajo outrigger boom

8134

POC *kayajo outrigger boom [doublet: *kiajo]

OC
Pak	kayat	outrigger boom
Nali	kayas	outrigger boom
Papitalai	kayac	outrigger boom
Seimat	ayas	outrigger boom
Wuvulu	ato	outrigger boom
Gedaged	ayad	outrigger boom

26683

*kayaŋ swing the arms

3143

PWMP *kayaŋ swing the arms

WMP
Cebuano	kayaŋ kayaŋ	fall on one's back tottering and grasping the air with the limbs
Kayan	kayaŋ	swing the arms in walking

31667

*káyas whittle, shave wood with knife

9824

PPh *káyas whittle, shave wood with knife

WMP
Ilokano	káyas	smoothed-out strips of bamboo
	kayás-an	to thin, whittle, scrape
Pangasinan	kayás	to clean a cane or reed by scraping it with a knife
Tagalog	pag-káyas	act of shaving off a stick or length of wood with a knife, a spokeshave or the like
Hanunóo	káyas	rattan strips which have been split and shaved to an even thickness for use in plaiting, lashing, tying, or lacing

33969

*kayasakas sound of swishing

12809

PPh *kayasakas sound of swishing

WMP
Itbayaten	kayasakas	noise; men’s rain coat made of dried banana leaves
Ilokano	kayaskás	sound of slippers on the floor
Ayta Abellan	kayasakas	to swish, noise produced when walking in grass, straw, etc.

Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat kayasukas ‘the rustling sound of paper or bushes; the sound of dry leaves being walked on’. Ayta Maganchi normally reflects *s as h; I assume that the failure to undergo this change in kayasakas is due to onomatopoetic retention.

28521

*kayat to climb vertically (as ladder, tree)

5648

PPh *kayat to climb vertically (as ladder, tree)

WMP
Yami	kalat	climb
	mika-kala-kalat	to climb in droves
	kalat-an	climbing spot
	kalat-en	to climb (as a tree)
Itbayaten	kayat	idea of climbing
	ka-kayat	act of climbing
	kayat	climb up a tree, ladder, steep incline, etc.
Ifugaw	káyat	to climb, e.g. on a long ladder, an upright pole, a tree; implies that arms and hands, as well as legs and feet are used in climbing (therefore the ascent of a path, which is not upright, is not considered a “climb”, but merely an ascent)
Ifugaw (Batad)	āyat	for a person, animal, insect, climbing vine to climb something, as a tree, ladder, house, steep incline such as a stone wall, sheet rock surface that is nearly vertical, but not to climb a hill or mountain

11133

PPh *i-kayat to climb vertically (as ladder, tree)

WMP
Itbayaten	i-chayat	to bring upstaris, to transport (by climbing), to carry along by climbing
	i-kayat	to climb, to go up
Ibatan	i-kayat	climb up a tree, ladder, steep incline, etc. with something
Bontok	ʔi-kayát	to climb, as up a ladder, tree or steep trail
Ifugaw (Batad)	i-āyat	for someone to climb with someone or something carried

11134

PPh *ma-ŋayat (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-ŋayat	to climb
Ifugaw	ma-ŋáyat	person who actually climbs

11135

PPh *k<om>ayat to climb vertically (as ladder, tree)

WMP
Itbayaten	k<om>ayat	to climb, to climb up
Ifugaw	k<um>áyat	to climb

31645

*kaykáy scratch up, sweep or rake up

9801

PPh *kaykáy scratch up, sweep or rake up

WMP
Ibatan	kaykay	a wooden rake made from a trunk of a shrub with splits on one end; to rake (leaves, etc.); to scratch up (as a chicken scratching in a pile of dry leaves or soil)
Ilokano	kaykáy	outdoor broom made of coconut midribs
	kaykay-án	to sweep a place with a kaykáy
	kaykay-én	to sweep dirt
Isneg	kaykáy-an	to scratch
Casiguran Dumagat	káykay	to scratch (of the scratching of a chicken)
Bikol	mag-kaykáy	to scratch the ground with the hand, foot or paw; (fig.) to scavenge
Cebuano	kaykáy ~ kalaykáy	dig up something with the hands, hoe up something in a scratching manner
Mansaka	kaykay	to dig with the hands to uncover something

12714

PPh *k<ar>aykáy rake

WMP
Ilokano	karaykáy	foot of a bird; rake
	ag-karaykáy	to scratch (chickens), to burrow (rodents)
Agutaynen	karaykay	a rake with a metal claw-like end (not the same as the homemade bamboo rakes used in slash-and-burn farming)

32025

*kayu kayu strong, tough, inflexible

10253

POC *kayu kayu strong, tough, inflexible

OC
Manam	kai	tree; to be strong, to be stubborn
	kai-kai	firm; to be strong, to be stubborn
Mbula	-keke	hard, stiff, rigid (cf. ke ‘tree’)
Bugotu	ka-kai	to be firm, steady, faithful, right
West Guadalcanal	ka-kai	strong
Wayan	kai	strong, tough, powerful; firm, rigid, stiff; hard wood
	kai-kai	be hard, firm, rigid; strong, tough, powerful
Fijian	kau-kau-a	strong, hard; strength, hardness
Tongan	kau-kau-a	strong, especially physically strong; burly, sturdy or robust

Note: A significant part of the support for this reconstruction was first proposed by Clark (2009), who noted that in virtually every language the base for ‘strong’ appears to be a reduplication of that for ‘wood, tree’. An expanded version appears in Ross and Osmond (2016:571-572).

26684

*kazaŋ₁ long; stilts (?)

3144

PWMP *kazaŋ₁ long; stilts (?) [doublet: *panzaŋ]

WMP
Yami	ma-káraŋ	high, tall
Ilokano	kádaŋ	eight timber pieces that form the Saint Andrew’s Cross of the granary
Ayta Abellan	kadaŋ	long; to make something long; tall
	ma-kadaŋ	long in length
Ayta Maganchi	karaŋ	long
Hanunóo	kádaŋ	walking on stilts
Aklanon	káraŋ	bamboo sled
Cebuano	káraŋ	stilts or similar contrivance to walk on, used for walking through water or for amusement; to walk on stilts, make into stilts; tall and lanky
Lun Dayeh	me-kadaŋ	long
Kelabit	kadaŋ	long, as a stick

9913

PPh *kadaŋ-kádaŋ stilts

WMP
Ilokano	kadaŋ-kádaŋ	stilt
	ag-kadaŋ-kádaŋ	to walk on stilts
Hanunóo	kadaŋ-kádaŋ	stilts of long bamboo poles, used by children as a form of amusement or game

Note: Also Ngaju Dayak panjaŋ ‘long, tall’, Malay panjaŋ ‘length (in space or time)’, Old Javanese panjaŋ ‘length’, (m)a-panjaŋ ‘long’, Javanese panjaŋ ‘long’, Sundanese panjaŋ ‘long, stretch out’, Karo Batak ganjaŋ ‘high’, ganjaŋ-na ‘the height of something, as a mountain’, Toba Batak ganjaŋ ‘long’.

31755

*kazaŋ₂ palm leaf awning, usually on boats

9925

PMP *kazaŋ₂ palm leaf awning, usually on boats

WMP
Pangasinan	káraŋ	shelter made of nipa and placed on boat or carabao cart
Tagalog	káraŋ	awning; small shed; nipa or bamboo roofing for native boats or barges
Ngaju Dayak	kajaŋ	palm leaf mats used as house walling and awnings in boats
Malay	kajaŋ	mat protection against rain; mat awning
Toba Batak	hajaŋ	field hut for overnight stays
	maŋ-hajaŋ	to build a fieldhut for overnight stays
Old Javanese	kajaŋ	mat-awning, canopy, screen of palm leaves
Javanese	kajaŋ	roof of dried palm leaves
	ŋajaŋ	to make a dried palm leaf roof
CMP
Ngadha	kadza	mat, awning of palm leaves

Note: Possibly a Malay loan distribution.

30062

*kazupay rat

6763

PCEMP *kazupay rat

CMP
Geser	kalufa	rat
Gah	karufei	rat
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	asafai	mouse
Gimán	luf	rat
Buli	luf	rat
Misool (Coast)	keluf	rat
Biga	kalof	rat
Irarutu	səfe	rat

6764

POC *kasupe rat [doublet: *kusupe]

OC
Tolai	kaupa	rat, mouse: Mus browni
Kwaio	ʔasufe	rat
'Āre'āre	asuhe	rat
Sa'a	äsuhe	rat
Arosi	ʔasuhe ~ kasuhe	rat, mouse
Mota	gasuwe	rat
Lakona	wohow	rat
Nasarian	na kasua	rat
Maxbaxo	γasu	rat
Southeast Ambrym	asu	rat
Toak	asu	rat
Bonkovia	souwe	rat

Note: Also Bali (Uneapa) kavuzeke ‘rat’, Wogeo kusive, Toqabaqita qasufa, gaqufa, Fila kisue ‘rat’. Osmond and Pawley (2011) include forms from a number of additional Oceanic languages, and note that the referent of this form probably was ‘Rattus exulans and possibly other small commensal sp. or spp.’.

TOP ka ke ki ko ku kw

31850

*kebá for the chest to tighten in excitement or fear; for the heart to pound

10048

PPh *kebá for the chest to tighten in excitement or fear; for the heart to pound

WMP
Ilokano	kebbá	throb; pulsation; excitement shown by physical tension
	ag-kebbá-kebbá	to gasp for breath; be out of breath; to rise and fall strongly (said of a chest out of breath)
Kankanaey	kebá	shrunk, contracted (applied to the stomach when one is hungry)
Bikol	kabá	fright
	ma-kaba-án	to get a fright; to be startled, be nervous
	pa-kaba-án	to give someone a fright; to startle
Hiligaynon	mag-kubá-kubá	to throb, to palpitate, to beat like the heart
Cebuano	kubá	for the chest to tighten from fright or from suddenly realizing something frightening; for the heart to beat in a pounding way

Note: Also Tagalog kabá ‘palpitation of the heart or pulse; twitter; an excited condition; to feel nervous; to have a premonition of something’, Chamorro huppa ‘frighten, scare, drive away (or into), force out, threaten, menace’.

31936

*kebel invulnerable, invulnerability

10152

PWMP *kebel invulnerable, invulnerability [doublet: *kabal]

WMP
Maranao	kebel	toughness; supernatural power
	kebel-aʔ	peson with supernatural power
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kebel	power by which a person is rendered
Tiruray	kebel	an occult capacity to resist being wounded; to deflect striking weapons; to be able to withstand hot weather without be impervious to heat
	kebel-an	impervious to wounds
Iban	kebal	invulnerable to weapons, have skin impenetrable by anything sharp
	ubat kebal	charm or spell to confer invulnerability
Malay	kəbal	impenetrability to weapons, as a form of invulnerability; making the skin slippery so that weapons glance off it; protecting the flesh by rubbing quicksilver into the body so as to get a subcutaneous metallic armor; kəbal is used, less correctly, of invulnerability secured by making missiles miss their mark; it is believed that a child born with a complete caul is invulnerable
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	kebel	invulnerable, not reachable with weapons
Toba Batak	hobol	nvulnerable
	ma-ŋobol	be struck, but without being wounded
	ma-ŋobol-i	make onself invulnerable
	par-hobol-on	skill in making oneself invulnerable
Proto-South Sulawesi	*kɨbbɨl	invulnerable

31855

*kebet₁ tie by binding around

10053

PMP *kebet₁ tie by binding around

WMP
Malay	kəbat	binding round; band; wrapper; circlet

10054

POC *kobot tie by binding

OC
Tolai	kobot	tie together, as bamboos or stones for a fish trap; secretly encircle a person in order to catch him

Note: If the Malay form contains the root *-bej ‘wind around repeatedly’ then the sound correspondences do not support this reconstruction, and it must be attributed to chance.

33157

*kebet₂ to subside, of a swelling

11656

PPh *kebet₂ to subside, of a swelling

WMP
Ayta Abellan	kebet	wrinkled by shrinking, swelling goes down
Palawano	kebet	subside, shrink (swelling), heal

31901

*kebil to touch

10112

PPh *kebil to touch

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kəbil	to touch, to take, to carry, to bring, to hold
	kəbil-ən	to bring, to carry, to take
Cebuano	mu-kubíl	touch something so as to do something to it

26694

*kebit touch or tap so as to draw someone's attention

3154

PMP *kebit touch or tap so as to draw someone's attention

WMP
Isneg	kabbít	to touch; if you are sprinkled with water while drinking because somebody touched you, you must say “kabbít” (a superstition)
	k<um>bít	to touch
Casiguran Dumagat	kəbit	touch someone with a finger so as to get their attention
Cebuano	kubít	touch someone, curling the fingers to get his attention
Maranao	kebit	hook with the finger
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kevit	touch or tap someone to draw his attention
Tiruray	kebit	to touch, to call attention; to pull the trigger
Ida'an Begak	kebpit	touch
Proto-Sangiric	*kəbit	touch to attract attention
Sangir	ma-ŋəbiʔ	tap someone to privately get his attention, give a sign to someone in order to say or give something
	kə<in>əbiʔ	was tapped in this way
CMP
Tetun	kebit	scratch lightly with the nails; touch lightly so as to draw attention

10022

POC *kobit₂ to touch

OC
Sa'a	kopi	touch with the fingers

Note: With root *-bit₁ ‘hook; grasp with fingers’. PMP *b generally became Tetun f, but is occasionally reflected as b (*bejbej ‘wind around’ > bobar ‘wind into skeins’). Zorc (1971) gives PPh *kebit ‘hook with finger’.

31132

*kebkeb₁ to enclose, shut in

9115

PMP *kebkeb₁ to enclose, shut in [doublet: *kubkub] [disjunct: *kepkep]

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kebkéb	to embrace, clasp tightly
	k<um>ebkéb	to embrace, clasp tightly
Isneg	mag-kabkáb	to embrace
Casiguran Dumagat	kəbkəb	to hug, to cling to (as to cling to a person, or to cling to a tree branch so as not to fall)
Ibaloy	kebkeb	enclosure --- especially of a pig pen; to pen, cage something (as pig, carabao)
	me-kebkeb	to be isolated, hemmed in, cut off from escape (as when road is closed to the outside)
Bikol	kubkób	to mate (fowl)
	pa-kubkob-ón	to breed chickens or other fowl
	mag-kubkób	to place the arms around a seated child while standing at his back in order to warm or protect him
Cebuano	kubkub	purse seine or impounding net used to catch fishes that run in schools; the school is surrounded with the net which is then pursed at the bottom
Lun Dayeh	kekeb	a cover, lid
	ŋekeb	to put a cover or lid on
Kelabit	kəkəb	lid, cover of something
	ŋəkəb	to cover, put a lid on
Old Javanese	ma-kəkəb	closed, covered, quiet
Balinese	kekeb	cover, covering; a storey of a house
Proto-Minahasan	*kəbkəb	to cover

9116

POC *kokop to enclose, shut in’

OC
Nehan	kokop	cover up, cover with leaves
	kokop-on	pot lid, leaf covering for cooking pot
Lau	kokof-i	to cover a baby from the sun
	kokof-ia	protected from the sun
Toqabaqita	koko	to hold something with one’s fingers around it (as the handle of a fan)
'Āre'āre	koko	narrow, confined
Sa'a	koko	to be narrow, confined; a plaited basket of coconut leaves with a narrow mouth, used as a food receptacle
Arosi	koko	root of many words meaning to enclose, shut in
Mota	koko	to keep close, contract; carry water in hands or leaf
	koko-r	to enclose, hold carefully with both hands; keep carefully, faithfully
	koko-s	to enclose, prevent from escaping, as fish in a net, fowls by the people catching them
	koko-t	to enclose in narrow limits
	koko-ta	narrow, confined; a narrow canoe

Note: Also Bintulu keb ‘lid, cover’, me-keb ‘to cover, put a lid on’. With root *-keb₁ ‘cover’.

34024

*kebkeb₂ to lie prone, face down

12873

PAN *kebkeb₂ to lie prone, face down

Formosan
Kavalan	su-qebqeb	to lie/fall on one’s face
WMP
Central Tagbanwa	k<um>ɨbkɨb	to lie on one’s stomach

Note: With root *-keb₂ ‘face downward’.

31728

*kebuR agitated, of water

9895

PMP *kebuR agitated, of water [doublet: *kabuR]

WMP
Malay	kəbur	driving before one (of fish); disturbing water so as to stir up mud

9896

POC *kopuR agitated, of water

OC
Arosi	ko-kohu	disturbed, troubled, dirty, of water

33422

*ke(n)dem dark; darkness

12126

PPh *ke(n)dem dark; darkness

WMP
Itbayaten	akdem	dark
	m-akdem	to be dark or shaded
Tontemboan	kendem	dark place; darkness

Note: With root *-dem₁ ‘dark; overcast’.

31788

*kedeŋ to stand; stretch out, as the body

9966

PMP *kedeŋ to stand; stretch out, as the body [doublet: *kezeŋ, *keteŋ]

WMP
Kalamian Tagbanwa	kɨrɨŋ	to stand
Melanau (Mukah)	kədəŋ	to raise, pull up into a standing position (as a tree that is down)
	pə-kədəŋ	to stand (stative and active)
Iban	kədaŋ	a stretch (as in stretching out one’s arms; also of an arm being stiff and lacking suppleness)
Malay	kədəŋ	astretch (as in stretching out one’s arms; also of an arm being stiff and lacking suppleness)
Sundanese	kədəŋ	to lie down
Sasak	kədəŋ	stretched taut, of a rope
Bare'e	kodo	to stretch out
	moŋ-kodo	to stretch oneself out
CMP
Bimanese	kiɗi	to stand
Manusela	oho	to stand
Proto-Ambon	*kədə	to stand
Laha	ele	to stand
Hitu	ele	stand
Asilulu	(k)ele	to stand; to be erect, to rise upward
	ka-kele	to keep standing, to stand around
Boano₂	ele	to stand
Tifu	kere-k	to stand
Soboyo	kohoñ	to stand

10068

POC *kodoŋ straight; to straighten

OC
Tolai	kodo	straight
Arosi	odo ~ odo-odo	straight

Note: Also Bukat ne-kariŋ ‘to stand’.

26698

*kedi small in size or amount

3158

PAN *kedi small in size or amount

Formosan
Paiwan	keḍi	be small, little, few
WMP
Bare'e	kodi	small
Makassarese (Salayar)	kedi	small
CMP
Ngadha	kedi	small and weak

26695

*kedik small in size or amount

3155

PWMP *kedik small in size or amount

WMP
Dusun Malang	kadik	small
Karo Batak	kedik	meagre, miserly
Old Javanese	keḍik	small number, measure or degree; short time
Balinese	kedik	little

Note: Also Dusun Deyah idik, Buli kori kori ‘small’, Old Javanese kidik ‘few’.

26696

*kedip to blink

3156

PAN *kedip to blink [doublet: *kelip]

Formosan
Paiwan	kalyedjip	to blink
	kedjip	eyelash
WMP
Malay (Jakarta)	kedip	a blink
	ŋedip-ŋedip	to blink, keep blinking

Note: For the semantics, cf. note to *qi(n)dem.

26697

*kedit small in size or amount

3157

PWMP *kedit small in size or amount

WMP
Taboyan	kedit	small
Singhi Land Dayak	kodit	low in height
Karo Batak	kedit	thrifty, economical
Uma	kediʔ	small

31851

*kedked to bind, tie tightly, probably of tying one thing which is moveable to another which is fixed

10049

PPh *kedked to bind, tie tightly, probably of tying one thing which is moveable to another which is fixed

WMP
Yami	kedked	tie together
	k<om>edked	to tie
	pa-kedked-en	to tie to (something else)
Itbayaten	kedked	idea of bondage; tie
	i-kedked	to bind, fasten, to tie
	ma-kedked	being tied
	ma-ŋedked	to drop anchor, to take mooring
	ni-pa-kedked	tied to something
	pa-kedker-en	to tie (a boat), to tie the other end of a rope which is connected with a boat to a post or rock on the shore
Bontok	kədkəd	to bind one thing to another, as two parts of one load
Kankanaey	kedkéd	tie; fastening; trimming; rattan used to attach the basket of the gimáta (pole with baskets at both ends, used to carry things) to the pole, or to trim the edge of baskets, etc.
Ifugaw	kodkód	sometimes used in the sense of attaching, tying one thing to another which is already fixed, so that the thing attached would not move
Binukid	kedked	to tightly bind up something, to secure something by tying (rope, etc.) around it tightly

32026

*keja intense green or blue-green

10254

POC *keja intense green or blue-green

OC
Lakalai	ka-kesa	green, ultramarine, turquoise
Sio	kenza	green
Mbula	kes-keeze-ŋa	blue or green color that is bright, intense, or strong
Tikopia	kesa	green, yellow-green, with suggestion of off-color; greyish-green
Mota	gesa-gesa-ga	bright blue or bright green
Raga	geha-ga	blue-green
Nakanamanga	kesa-kesa	blue

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2003a:210).

32027

*keju back of the head

10255

POC *keju back of the head

OC
Yabem	gèsu	back of the head
Ubir	etu	occiput
Mukawa	ketu-ketu	back of the head
Hula	keru	back of the head
Motu	gedu	back the head; heel
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka	ʔedu-ʔedu	base of skull
Dobuan	ʔedu-ʔedu	base of skull
Molima	ʔedu-ʔedu-na	back of the head
	ʔedu-ʔedu-nega	from the rear
	ʔedu-ʔedu uya	to turn the head around
Rotuman	ʔeju	back of the head
	ʔej-ʔeju	to turn the back of the head towards (esp. when going away)
Fijian	kesu	the occiput, back of the head

Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Milke (1968), and another version by Osmond and Ross (2016:112-113).

26700

*kek squawk

3160

PMP *kek squawk

WMP
Kankanaey	kek	shriek, screech, scream
Karo Batak	kek	sound of someone who almost chokes in attempting to eat a big piece of something
CMP
Manggarai	kek	cracking sound of a falling tree
Rembong	kek	sound made by a frog, croak
Sika	kek	growl; grunt, of a pig
OC
Motu	ko	to shout from a distance, ending in a cooee
Tongan	kō	(of fowls) to squawk

31852

*keke₁ to crunch; sound of crunching

10050

POC *keke₁ to crunch; sound of crunching

OC
Nggela	keke	tick, any slight sound
Sa'a	keke	to crunch coconuts, canarium nuts, etc., of pigs or rete (a large rat: Mus rex)
Gilbertese	keke	a noise, crack, crackling noise, grating noise, rustling noise (of hard thing being rattled or dragged along); to make this noise
	te ka-kekeke	a skirt of dry leaves, very stiff
Maori	keke-keke	make a confused noise; chatter, as the teeth with cold

31891

*keke₂ to coil, bend

10098

POC *keke₂ to coil, bend

OC
Motu	keke-a	to coil (as a rope on the deck of a boat)
Tongan	ma-keke	to bend, be bent, crouch up, withdraw

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31694

*kekekeke kind of plover and its cry

9858

POC *kekekeke kind of plover and its cry

OC
Motu	kekekeke	a bird, a species of plover
Tongan	kekekeke	to shriek, screech, scream

Note: Clark (2011:364) has proposed ‘Proto-Remote Oceanic’ *keke ~ kaka ‘wader’, but most of the reflexes he adduces either point to *kaka, or require arbitrary morpheme segmentations, or both.

26699

*kekes shrink, decrease

3159

PWMP *kekes shrink, decrease [disjunct: *keŋkeŋ₃]

WMP
Maranao	kekes	decrease
Bare'e	koko	shrink, grow narrow

26746

*ke(k)kek to cluck

3206

PMP *ke(k)kek to cluck

WMP
Ilokano	kekék	the cry of the hen when calling her chicks
Kankanaey	kékek	to chirp, pip, peep, cheep, pule
Bare'e	keke	sound of laughter
Makassarese	kekeʔ	to croak, of frogs
CMP
Tetun	kokok	stammer, stutter ha-kokok to cackle (like fowls)
OC
Nggela	ko-koko	to cluck, of a hen
Mota	koko	cluck, make the cry of fowls

Note: Also Fijian kokō ‘to cluck, of a hen; croak, of a frog; squeal, of a tethered pig’. With root *-kek ‘shriek, creak, cluck, chuckle’.

26705

*kelaŋ dry

3165

PWMP *kelaŋ dry [doublet: *keRaŋ]

WMP
Sambal (Botolan)	kelaŋ	dry (not wet)
Sundanese	kelaŋ	thoroughly dry, dried out (as earth)

Note: Also Bikol aláŋ ‘dry, arid’.

26701

*kelap₁ dim, of light

3161

PWMP *kelap₁ dim, of light [disjunct: *kelep]

WMP
Ilokano	kellép	new moon
Isneg	kalláp	darkness, the dark
Casiguran Dumagat	kelep	night, night-time
Cebuano	kúlap, kuláp	dim, not affording much light; for the eyes to be dim
Malay	gelap	darkness that conceals

Note: Based on the cognate set Malay gelap ‘darkness’, Toba Batak golap ‘darkness’, Javanese gelap ‘lightning’, Dempwolff (1934-38) posited *gelap ‘storm, darkness’. Javanese gelap, however, almost certainly contains a root *-lap ‘flash, sparkle’, and hence is of doubtful cognation. Given the common cross-over of voicing in velar stops Malay gəlap is considered comparable to the Philippine forms cited here despite the irregularity of the initial consonant.

31775

*kelap₂ shine, sparkle, twinkle

9946

PMP *kelap₂ shine, sparkle, twinkle [disjunct: *kerap]

WMP
Bahasa Indonesia	kəlap-kəlip	twinkle, flicker (of a lamp, star, firefly, etc.); to blink (of the eyes)
OC
Arosi	ʔora	to blaze, gleam, shine

26702

*kelaq crack, split

3162

PMP *kelaq crack, split

WMP
Tiruray	kelaʔ	a crack
	kelaʔ-an	having cracks in the soles of one's feet
Ngaju Dayak	kelah	what is torn off; to tear apart
CMP
Ngadha	kela	to split off (as wood), split in half
OC
Fijian	kola	split wood with wedges; break open a seed pod

Note: With root *-laq ‘split’.

32722

*kelaqat sudden, abrupt, unexpected

11154

PPh *kelaqat sudden, abrupt, unexpected

WMP
Itbayaten	akxat	to do something upon something or someone suddenly and unexpectedly
Ilokano	kelláat	sudden, instantly; abrupt
	kelláat-en	to surpise; come upon suddenly

26703

*kelas to peel, skin off

3163

PMP *kelas to peel, skin off

WMP
Bontok	kəlás	pull off, as clothes
Balinese	kelas	lay bare, peel, skin
OC
Nggela	gola	scrape, plane
	golah-i	to scrape, plane; chafe, bruise, rub skin off
Mota	gor	rasp, scrape

Note: Also Malagasy helaka ‘skinned, peeled’.

26704

*kelaw amaze, astonish, shock, surprise

3164

PWMP *kelaw amaze, astonish

WMP
Pangasinan	keláw	surprise, astonish, amaze
	maka-pa-keláw	strange, amazing
Maranao	kelaw	fright, frighten
Iban	kelau kelau	giddy, queer (feeling)

30786

*keleb to shut, close

8518

PPh *keleb to shut, close

WMP
Ilokano	kelléb	cover of a jar; lid of a pot
	kelleb-an	to cover with a lid
Maranao	keleb	wall; shut
Binukid	keleb	to close a door and/or window
Mongondow	kolob	cover tightly; cover an object completely with, for example, a fly-cover (for drinks), or a basket

33664

*keléb to lie face down, lie prone

12409

PPh *keléb to lie face down, lie prone

WMP
Ilokano	ag-pa-kleb	to fall prone; to lie on the stomach (cited under base kelléb)
Aklanon	kueób	face downwards
Palawano	keleb	lie facing down
Cebuano	kulúb	lie on one’s belly, be overturned

Note: Possibly a sporadic metathesis of *leŋkeb ‘lie prone’, which must have been the original order, since it contains a monosyllabic root *-keb₂ ‘face downward’.

30888

*kelem dark, overcast, visually obscure

8717

PAN *kelem dark, overcast, visually obscure

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	z<em>-kerem	rain-cloudy, about to rain
WMP
Bintulu	kələm	night
Ngaju Dayak	kalam	waning of the moon
Iban	kelam	cloudy, overcast
Malay	kelam	murk; obscurity; not extreme darkness (gelap); only such darkness as makes vision difficult (of myopia, dizziness affecting the eyes, darkness due to smoke or dust, weeping that affects the vision, a bright day becoming clouded; also figuratively for obscurity of thought
Karo Batak	kelem	waning of the moon
Toba Batak	holom	dark, dusky
	ha-holom-on	be overcome by darkness (when travelling)
Javanese	kelem	(of colors) dull
Sasak	kələm	darkness (of the evening); evening, night
Mongondow	mo-oŋ-kolom-ai	used to describe the time of day when light is fading, dusk
Makassarese	kallaŋ	obscure, dark

Note: Also Proto-Chamic *kanam ‘dark’. With root *-lem₁ ‘dark’.

31818

*kelen groin, inner thigh where it joins the trunk

10009

PCMP *kelen groin, inner thigh where it joins the trunk

WMP
Wolio	kala	groin, inner part of the thighs
CMP
Tetun	kelen	thigh, the largest part of the leg, the ham
Buruese	kelen	thigh

Note: PAn *paqa clearly meant ‘thigh’, and this term has been preserved both in Wolio, and in a number of CMP languages. PMP *kelen has been generalized to this meaning in both Tetun and Buruese, but evidently referred instead to the inner thigh or groin area where the thigh joins the trunk. The comparison is completely problem-free, but its distribution is remarkably thin.

26706

*keleŋ₁ cut into pieces

3166

PMP *keleŋ₁ cut into pieces [doublet: *geleŋ]

WMP
Kayan	keleŋ	chopped into sections
Sundanese	keleŋ	anything that is cut into pieces
OC
Arosi	ŋgoro	to cut up, as for planting

31853

*keleŋ₂ inclination, leaning to the side

10051

PWMP *keleŋ₂ inclination, leaning to the side

WMP
Tagalog	kíliŋ	inclination, or leaning towards the side; (fig.) partiality, bias
	kilíŋ	inclined, tilted; twisted, referring esp. to the neck; (fig.) partial, biased
	i-kíliŋ	to incline; to cause to incline or to lean sideways
	k<um>íliŋ	to incline, to tilt; to be partial or biased
	kilíŋ-an	to favor someone; to be one-sided or partial
Maranao	keleŋ	move the head
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	keleŋ	turn the head to one side
Karo Batak	keleŋ	inclined, disposed; devoted to
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	keleŋ	to like, be attached to
Toba Batak	holoŋ	inclined, favorably disposed toward

Note: First proposed by Dempwolff (1938), who made the connection with Batak through the figurative sense of the Tagalog form. However, this remains tenative, as the core meaning appears to have been the physical fact of leaning sideward, evidently with regard principally to the head or neck in a twisted position.

31298

*kelep dim, of light

9362

PWMP *kelep dim, of light [disjunct: *kelap]

WMP
Ilokano	kellép	new moon
Isneg	kalláp	darkness, the dark
Casiguran Dumagat	kelep	night, night-time
Bikol	kúlop	eclipse of the sun
	mag-kúlop	to go into eclipse (of the sun)
Inati	kelep	night
Malay	gəlap	darkness that conceals

33404

*keles to subside, shrink, reduce in size

12085

PPh *keles to subside, shrink, reduce in size

WMP
Agutaynen	k<um>elet	to shrink, as wood or bamboo
Yakan	pa-kelles	to go down, become less, subside (of air, water, swelling); deflate
Tausug	kullus	withered
	k<um>ullus	to wither; for a swelling or bump to subside; for a person or animal to lose weight; for a tire, balloon, etc. to lose air (and so get smaller)

30493

*keli to dig up

7711

PCEMP *keli to dig up [doublet: *kali₂]

CMP
Dobel	ʔa-ʔel	to dig
OC
Label	kil	to dig up
Mbula	-kel	to dig (as in digging up the ground); dig up and collect
Mono-Alu	eli	to dig
Lungga	γeli	to dig
Roviana	geli-a	to dig (as in digging up yams)
Nggela	geli	to dig, dig through; to harvest a crop of yams, etc.
Talise	γeli-a	to dig
Kwaio	ʔeli	to dig
	ʔeli-a	to dig up
Lau	ʔeli	to dig
	ʔeli-la	digging
'Āre'āre	eri-a	to dig, harvest; dig a hole; bury, cover with earth
Sa'a	eli ~ eli-eli	to dig, as in digging up yams or digging a grave
Proto-Micronesian	*keli	to dig
Gilbertese	keni-ken	to scratch in sand for shellfish; to dig, to excavate
Chuukese	ssin	dig up (of potatoes or other root crops)
Woleaian	geli-ŋi	dig it, delve it, core it, excavate it
Fijian	keli	to dig a hole
Tongan	keli	to dig; to dig up (but when speaking of yams , keli is ‘to plant’)
Hawaiian	ʔeli	to dig, excavate

Note: Also Hawu kei ‘to dig, dig a hole’, Toqabaqita ʔili ‘dig (in) the ground; of pigs: root (in the ground)’.

26707

*kelip to blink

3167

PAN *kelip to blink [doublet: *kedip, *kezap]

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	kerip	to blink (once)
WMP
Narum	kəlip	a blink, a flicker of flames
	ŋəlip	to blink
Malay	kelip	flash, twinkle

Note: For the semantics, cf. note to *qi(n)dem.

31729

*kelkel₁ to cuddle, cradle, as a baby

9897

PPh *kelkel₁ to cuddle, cradle, as a baby

WMP
Bontok	kəlkəl	to wrap something around the neck, as a scarf; also of the custom of placing a loincloth around the necks of the fathers of the bride and groom during wedding ceremonies
Casiguran Dumagat	kəlkəl	to cuddle (a child or a pet animal)
Bikol	mag-kulkól	to cuddle or cradle, to have one sit on one’s lap
Binukid	kelkel	to put one’s arms around someone; to embrace, hug someone; to hug something to oneself

33985

*kelkel₂ to have a fit of coughing

12828

PPh *kelkel₂ to have a fit of coughing

WMP
Ilokano	kelkél	whooping cough
	kelkel-en	to cough repeatedly
Manobo (Sarangani)	kelkel	to cough

Note: Also Kalamian Tagbanwa kulkul, Agutaynen keykey ‘cough; to cough’.

31927

*keluk bend, curve

10143

PWMP *keluk bend, curve

WMP
Tausug	kulluk	bent (as a twig), curved, warped
	kulluk-un	to bend, curve (something)
Malay	kəlok	curve; arc; curling or wavy line, esp. of the curve used decoratively
Tae'	kelok	bent, curved

Note: With root *-luk ‘bend, curve’.

31730

*keluŋ₁ coil, curl, undulation

9898

PWMP *keluŋ₁ coil, curl, undulation [doublet: *kaluŋ]

WMP
Cebuano	kulúŋ	for the hair to be curly, wavy; the process of curling hair
Tausug	kuluŋ	a curl, ringlet (as of hair)
	mag-kuluŋ	to curl (someone’s hair)
Basap	kəloŋ	bent
Iban	eŋ-keloŋ	coil around, embrace, cradle a child in the arms
Malay	kəloŋ	curving, concave
	piriŋ kəloŋ	deep plate, soup plate
	rambut kəloŋ dahi	hair curling round the forehead
	saŋgul kəloŋ	hair dressed in trefoil knot behind the head
Totoli	keluŋ	crooked, bent

Note: Also Javanese kelun ‘a rolling, billowing motion (as of smoke rising)’, kelun smoky, to smoke profusely; fig. to reach the sky’. With root *-luŋ ₁ ‘bend, curve’.

31854

*keluŋ₂ ^shield

10052

PPh *keluŋ₂ ^shield

WMP
Maranao	keloŋ	shield
Tiruray	keluŋ	a long, narrow shield decorated with rows of shells, used for fighting and dancing
Sangir	kəlluŋ	shield, used in various dances

31926

*kembaŋ swollen, expanding outward

10142

PWMP *kembaŋ swollen, expanding outward [doublet: *kembuŋ]

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kembaŋ	swollen (as an injured hand)
Malay	kəmbaŋ	expansion; blossoming out
Old Javanese	kəmbaŋ	flower
Javanese	kembaŋ	flower, blossom; flowers used decoratively
Mandar	kambaŋ	swollen, as a body covered with bee stings
Makassarese	kambaŋ	swelling, boil

Note: Also Old Javanese kambaŋ ‘flower’. Dempwolff (1938) included Malagasy hembana ‘the flight of birds’, a-hemba-hemba ‘used in speaking of a flag, etc., blown by the wind’, Tongan kopa ‘frizzy next to straight hair’, Futunan kopa ‘wavy and black, of hair’, and Samoan Ɂopa ‘stiff, of hair which stands up’, but none of these show a convincing relationship to the forms cited here.

31856

*kembuŋ swollen, filled out

10055

PMP *kembuŋ swollen, filled out

WMP
Malay	kəmboŋ	puffed out; swollen with wind; inflation, of the inflation and deflation of a trumpeter’s cheeks, wind in the stomach, or the ‘blown out’ boxfish or parrot fish, which has the habit of distending itself and is thought typical of hollow pretensions
Javanese	kembuŋ	of stomach, to ache, feel bloated
Balinese	kembuŋ	swelling, blister
Sasak	kəmbuŋ	to blow up, inflate
	kə-kəmbuŋ	a balloon

10056

POC *kobuŋ swollen

OC
Nggela	kombu	to swell and be mature, of the breasts

Note: Also Malay gəmboŋ ‘blown out with air or stuffing, as a fowl’s crop’, Wolio kamba ‘swell up’. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *kembuŋ ‘be inflated’ based on Tagalog kubóŋ ‘short mantle used to cover head and shoulders’, Ngaju Dayak kemboŋ ‘bulging outward conspicuously, said of long things, planks, etc.’, Malay kəmboŋ ‘puffed out’, Toba Batak hombuŋ ‘large wooden chest for storing things’, and Javanese kembuŋ ‘of stomach, to ache, feel bloated’. Needless to say, the semantic looseness of this comparison (beyond the agreement of the Malay, Javanese and perhaps Ngaju Dayak forms) does not inspire confidence in its validity. The comparison offered here is far more straightforward.

31295

*kemel take in the hand, clasp, grasp

9356

PMP *kemel take in the hand, clasp, grasp [disjunct: *gemel, *kemes]

WMP
Isneg	kammál	fish with the hands
Bontok	kəməl	to hold, grasp, clasp or grip using two hands, as to capture a bird or to stop someone from running away; to masturbate
Casiguran Dumagat	kəməl	to squeeze with the hand (as to reach out and squeeze someone’s arm to signal them to be quiet, or to squeeze a handful of cooked rice into a ball
Pangasinan	kemél	to catch fish with the hands
Tagalog	kamál	large handful; kneading (of dough, etc.)
Bikol	kumól	a ball of rice formed with the hand
	mag-kumól	to form a ball of rice with the hand
Maranao	kemel	squeeze
Toba Batak	homol	keep something for oneself, give none to anyone else
CMP
Buruese	keme-h	pinch

9357

POC *gomol squeeze, hold tight, clutch

OC
Arosi	gomo	squeeze, hold tight, clutch

31793

*kemes grip, compress, squeeze

9973

PMP *kemes grip, compress, squeeze [doublet: *kemel]

WMP
Tagalog	kimís	pressed or squeezed in the fist; one who is under the complete power of someone else
Maranao	kemes	grip by making hand into a fist
Binukid	kemes	to squeeze (something)
Proto-Sangiric	*kəmis	to squeeze, wring

9974

POC *komos grip, compress, close in on

OC
Arosi	gomo	to squeeze, hold tight, clutch
	komo, komos-i	to close tight upon, as a giant clam
	ko-komo	to shut in, as ship in harbor, man in cave
	ko-komos-i	to shut in, enclose

Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat kəmhəs ‘to squeeze something in the hand (to force liquid out, as a lemon or wet cloth).

33349

*kemet do with the hand

11952

PPh *kemet do with the hand [doublet: *kamet]

WMP
Agta (Central Cagayan)	kemet	hand
Subanon	komot	hand

26708

*kemi suckerfish, remora: Echineis naucrates; hold on by biting

3168

PMP *kemi suckerfish, remora: Echineis naucrates; hold on by biting [doublet: *gemi]

WMP
Cebuano	kumi	suckerfish, remora: Remora sp.
Tiruray	kemi	kind of saltwater suckerfish, remora
Malay	ikan kemi	sucking fish: Echineis naucrates
Sangir	kemmi	purse the lips together
OC
Tongan	komi-komi	(of biting) to be tenacious, refusing to let go
Maori	komi	bite, close the jaws on, eat

10230

POC *komi suckerfish, remora: Echineis naucrates; hold on by biting

Note: Also Iban gemi-an ‘kind of sea fish’, Malay ikan kermi ‘sucking fish: Echineis naucrates’.

26709

*kemiq urinate

3169

PMP *kemiq urinate

WMP
Malay	kəmeh	urinate
CMP
Tetun	ta-kmi	urinate

Note: Also Iban kemiɁ ‘urinate’. Evidently with the root *-miq found reduplicated in *miqmiq ‘urine, urinate’.

26710

*kemkem₁ hold in the fist

3170

PWMP *kemkem₁ hold in the fist [doublet: *gemgem]

WMP
Itbayaten	kemkem	handful
Kankanaey	kemkém	squeeze, press in one's hand, knead
Pangasinan	kemkém	to hold tightly with the hand; to massage
Tagalog	kimkím	held in the fist
	k<um>imkím	to clench; to hold something in the closed hand
Bikol	kamkám	to grope, to feel one’s way
Cebuano	kumkúm	hold something in the hand with the palm closed; get possession of something
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kemkem	clench the hand into a fist; hold something in the fist
Simalur	xeŋkem	a closed handful
Kaidipang	koŋgomo	to hold in the fist

Note: Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *kemkem ‘hold shut; handful’.

31872

*kemkem₂ bite down hard

10079

PAN *kemkem₂ bite down hard

Formosan
Amis	kemkem	to chew something hard
WMP
Ilokano	kemkem-én	to chew; clench the teeth; bear a grudge
	pa-kemkem-án	to bridle, put something in the mouth

31903

*kempeŋ lower stomach, bladder

10114

PWMP *kempuŋ lower stomach, bladder [doublet: *kambu]

WMP
Mongondow	kompoŋ	intestines, according to some only the bowels without the stomach; also: belly
Ponosakan	kompoŋ	intestines
Totoli	kompoŋ	intestines
Balaesang	kompoŋ	belly
Banggai	komboŋ	belly; stomach
Bare'e	kompo	belly, lower part of the trunk
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kompoN	stomach, intestines
Mori Atas	kompo	belly
Padoe	kompo	belly
Wolio	kompo	belly, stomach

Note: Also Malay (Jakarta) kəmpoŋ-an ‘bladder’, Javanese kempuŋ ‘lower part of stomach, with the bladder’, Futunan kopū ‘swim bladder of a fish’. The exact meaning of this form remains elusive.

32028

*kempu grandchild

10256

PMP *kempu grandchild [doublet: *empu 'grandparent/grandchild (recipr.)']

WMP
Karo Batak	kempu	grandchild
	er-kempu	to have grandchildren
Dampelas	ma-ʔupu ^<A	grandchild
Balaesang	mo-kupu ^<A	grandchild
Ampibabo-Lauje	mo-ʔopu	grandchild

10257

POC *mo-kobu grandchild

OC
Pak	mo-kopu-	grandchild
Tongan	mo-kopu-na	grandchild
Niue	mo-kopu-na	grandchild
Hawaiian	moʔopu-na	grandchild; great-niece or -nephew; relatives two generations later, whether blood or adopted; descendant; posterity

Note: Despite their striking similarity, the affixed forms of this base in Tomini-Tolitoli and Oceanic languages appear to be unrelated.

31789

*kemuR to hold liquid in the mouth; to gargle

9967

PMP *kemuR to hold liquid in the mouth; to gargle

WMP
Old Javanese	a-kəmuh	to rinse with
	ma-kəmu-kəmu	to keep in the mouth (a liquid), rinse with
Javanese	kemu	to rinse out the mouth
Balinese	kemu	keep water in the mouth
	kemuh	wash out the mouth

9968

POC *gomuR to hold liquid in the mouth; to gargle

OC
Mussau	gom-gom	to eat, swallow
Motu	gomu	to fill the mouth with water
	gomu-gomu	to wash out the mouth with water
Lau	gomu	hold in the mouth, eat with the lips
	gomu	hold in the mouth
Mota	kom	keep food in the mouth, in the cheek
	gom(gom)	to hold liquid in the mouth
	komkom	something kept in the mouth

Note: Also Tolai ŋgum-ŋgum ‘to gargle, rinse out or wash the mouth’, Arosi gomi(gomi) ‘hold liquid in the mouth, gargle’. Woleaian kumwu ‘mouthful (as of water)’. With root *-muR ‘gargle, rinse the mouth’.

26711

*kemut teem, swarm

3171

PWMP *kemut teem, swarm

WMP
Karo Batak	kemut	teem, swarm, as ants, fish in the water, etc.
Bare'e	kemu	teem, swarm

31714

*ken it is said, people say.....

9880

PWMP *ken it is said, people say..... [doublet: *kenu, *kunu, *kunuq]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kan	it was said or heard; so he said, so they say; according to some source (may or may not express doubt, depending on its position in the clause)
Hanunóo	kún	saying, telling, etc.
	mag-kún	to say, to tell
Binukid	kun	it is said, someone said; according to report or rumor, reportedly
Kelabit	kən	according to (someone or something)
Chamorro	hun	quotative marker; used to distinguish a reported statement from a statement known to be fact

30999

*kena dress up, be decked out in one’s finest clothing

8904

PWMP *kena dress up, be decked out in one’s finest clothing

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kena	beauty, quickness
	ma-ŋena	adorn oneself, dress oneself up beautifully; court someone by dressing up in one’s best
Old Javanese	ka-kəna-n	to apply to, use on, subject to, put something on someone; make wear
Muna	fo-kona	put on (clothes); fasten, attach (ornaments)

26712

*kenas preserved meat or fish

3172

PMP *kenas preserved meat or fish

WMP
Bulungan	kenas	fish
Paku	kenah	fish
Ma'anyan	kenah	fish
Malagasy	hena	beef; flesh meat
Iban	kenas	fish (ikan) preserved by steeping or parboiling to remove bones, salting and smoke-curing in bamboo
Malay	kenas	shellfish, salted and mixed with rice, sago and other ingredients for preservation as food
Old Javanese	kenas	small game; in particular deer, roe?
Sangir	kinaʔ	fish (gen.), flesh in general
CMP
Manggarai	kenas	roasted meat which is preserved in a bamboo container

Note: Also Kadazan Dusun taŋ-kanas ‘eat fish’, Soboyo kena ‘fish’.

31928

*kendal a tree: Cordia spp.

10144

PMP *kendal a tree: Cordia spp.

WMP
Malay	daun sə-kəndal	young leaves of Cordia myxa (used medicinally)
CMP
Ngadha	kedha	a tree: Cordia dichotoma (Verheijen 1984)

Note: Also Malay sə-kəndai ‘a tree: Cordia obliqua’. This comparison was first noted in print by Verheijen (1984), who posited PMP *kenDal a tree: Cordia dichotoma. However, there is some doubt about the meaning of *kendal, given the far better-supported PAn *qaNuNaŋ ‘a tree: Cordia dichotoma. If valid, the reconstruction cited here may have referred to a different species.

26714

*kenduŋ tree sp.

3174

PWMP *kenduŋ tree sp.

WMP
Ilokano	kandóŋ	small tree with large coriaceous leaves and deep blue or purple flowers: Memecylon umbrellatum
Iban	kendoŋ	trees, Garcinia spp.
Malay	kendoŋ	a tree: Symplocos ferruginea
	kendoŋan	a tree: Symplocos ferruginea
Balinese	kenduŋ	species of tree having very hard wood

31929

*kenduR loose, slack

10145

PWMP *kenduR loose, slack

WMP
Malay	kəndur	slack (not taut)
Gayō	kenur	slack (not taut)
Toba Batak	hondur	slack, not taut, of a cord
Old Javanese	kənḍo	loose, slack
	kə-kənḍo-n	loosely done up (of a chignon)
Javanese	kenḍo	loose, slack (as a rope)
Sasak	kəndur	slack, not taut, of a rope

Note: Also this comparison has a more restricted distribution than most that are assigned to PWMP, the appearance of an Old Javanese word that cannot easily be explained as a Malay loan, and the sharp phylogenetic divergence of Javanese from Malayo-Chamic, supports the reconstruction proposed here.

31794

*keniŋ eyebrow

9975

PWMP *keniŋ eyebrow [doublet: *kiniŋ]

WMP
Iban	kəniŋ	forehead; have a slope (as sloping ground, a bluff)
Malay	kəniŋ	brow, eyebrow
	aŋkat kəniŋ	a hint or signal (lit. ‘a lift of the eyebrows’)
Sangir	kəniŋ	shave off hair around ears and neck
Sa'dan Toraja	kanniŋ	eyebrow
Proto-South Sulawesi	*kɨnniŋ	eyebrow
Buginese	ɨnniŋ	eyebrow

Note: Several reflexes in South Sulawesi languages are phonologically irregular, and may indicate a history of borrowing.

31715

*kenu it is said, people say.....

9881

PWMP *kenu it is said, people say..... [disjunct: *kunu, *kunuq]

WMP
Bikol	kunó	so they say
Cebuano	kunú	it is said, someone said
Iban	kenuʔ	it is said, the story goes (esp. in tales to mark quotations or new sections).

26713

*keNa be ensnared, caught in a trap; suffer, undergo, be struck by something; be entrapped or deceived; hit the mark, be ‘on target’, correct, right, true

3173

PAN *keNa be ensnared, caught in a trap; suffer, undergo, be struck by something; be entrapped or deceived; hit the mark, be ‘on target’, correct, right, true

Formosan
Tsou	mə-ʔho	to hit the mark
Kanakanabu	s<um>á-kəna	to hit the mark
Rukai (Mantauran)	u-ʔa-kəla	to hit the mark
WMP
Ilokano	kenná	to catch, trap; to be caught by surprise
	k<um>na	to fall into a trap
	kenna-en	to entrap; beguile a person
Bontok	kəna	to catch by trapping, as birds; to trap
Kankanaey	na-kná	caught in a trap; fallen into a snare; entrapped; trapped; ensnared; caught; hit (applied to birds, etc., to spinning tops hit by the top of an opponent, etc.)
	ken-én	to catch; to entrap; to trap; to ensnare; to hit
	may-kena	to hit on exactly, precisely; to be dead on, “nail it”
	na-kna	caught in a trap
Ibaloy	i-kna	to use, place, set something as a trap or snare
Pangasinan	kená	to hit a target with a shot, stone, etc.
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kənəh	hitting the target
	mə-kənəh	hit or be right on the target
Tring	kənah	true, correct
Kayan	kena-	word used to form passive sentence construction
	kena-k	done by me
	kena-m	done by you
Kiput	kənəh	correct
Iban	kenaʔ	right, proper, suitable; suffer, undergo, be affected by; forming a passive; use, wear
Malay	kəna	contact; to be up against; to incur; to experience; to touch exactly; to hit off (often in a passive sense); also idiomatically in the sense of being ‘taken in’ or deceived
	kəna-pa ~ kəna apa	why? because of what?
Gayō	kona	be hit, struck by something
	te-kona	be affected by black magic
Karo Batak	kena	be hit, struck, affected by; right, ‘in step’, correct
	kena sidiŋ	caught in a snare, ensnared in a noose trap
Toba Batak	hona	be struck by something (also in a figurative sense)
	hona rasun	be poisoned
	hona sahit	suddenly fall ill
	hona toru	struck by a curse
	hona udan	caught by surprise in a rainstorm
	ha-hona-an	an encounter
Rejang	keno	hit, strike
Old Javanese	kəna	hit by, touched by, subjected to, being the object of
	ka-kəna-n	to catch, seize, get hold of; to hit, touch
Javanese	kena	to touch, hit; be subjected to (as a fine, a flood, a prison sentence)
	kena apa	why? what for? [lit. ‘struck by what?’]
Balinese	kena	to reach, hit, touch; meet with; find; grasp, understand; befall, be a victim of, catch
	kena-haŋ	be got, be obtained
	kena-hin	be hit by, be befallen by; be obtained (a definite thing)
	mati kena pedaŋ	die by being struck with a sword
	samoŋ kena belantik	a tiger was caught by a trap
Sasak	kəna	be hit, struck, affected by
	kənaʔ	right, exact, correct, true (of things and actions)
Tae'	kanna	be struck, affected by
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kona	to hit, to touch
Buginese	kenna	be struck, affected by
Wolio	kana	to hit, fall upon, befall; come to, arrive at, reach; be hit; prove correct; work out well, be real, be right, be correct, be valid; succeed, win
Muna	kona	one’s catch or haul (as a deer caught in a trap); get caught in a trap (as a wild chicken); to catch in a trap
CMP
Tetun	kona	to happen; to pass by; to pass in a particular direction; to go to a place (Morris 1984); exact, correct (Mathijsen 1906)
Selaru	ken	to strike, be struck
Fordata	kena	hit the mark; correct, right, true
	na-f-kena	to correct; to tally, of a sum of money or a calculation
	n-kena	to touch, to affect someone or something
Kei	ken	mark, target; correct
	en-fan ken	to hit the mark
	en-ken	to strike, hit, affect
Alune	kena	be hit, injured

8902

PWMP *ma-ŋena to hit, to strike

WMP
Ibaloy	me-ŋna	to trap, snare, catch something (as fish, bird in a trap)
Toba Batak	ma-ŋona-i	to hit someone or something
	ma-ŋona-i hata	to insult (‘strike with words’)
Javanese	ŋena	to aim at, try to hit; to impose something on someone; to hit, touch, reach
Mori Bawah	moŋ-kona	to hit target; come into contact with; be struck by

8903

PWMP *pa-kena (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Karo Batak	pe-kena-kena	put in order, look after someone
Sasak	pə-kənaʔ	to find something good or right
Tae'	pa-kanna	get lucky in gambling

Note: Also Tagalog kanáʔ ‘to set, as a trap; ready; readied, as a gun’, i-kanáʔ ‘to set a trap’, Bare'e kono ‘to touch, affect; be struck by; correct, exact’, Kamarian kema ‘touch, strike’.

This form is semantically unusual in some languages, as Malay, where it carries an inherently passive sense without the need for passive morphology in constructions such as mata saya kena abu ‘ashes got in my eye’ (my eye was struck by ashes), or banyak anak-anak kena penyakit cacar ‘many children fell sick with smallpox.’ Given the glosses in some modern languages it seems likely that its basic meaning in PMP was ‘be ensnared, caught in a trap’, the suddenness, unexpectedness, negativity, and non-agency of the event being essential experiential features that carry over to many other situations.

Although my initial impulse was to separate the meanings relating to being struck or affected by forces beyond one’s control from those carrying the sense ‘true, correct’, it became apparent as more examples were collected that these meanings are extremes of a continuum in which the connecting link is ‘to hit the mark’ (= ‘get it right’). The final glottal stops in Iban and Sasak remain puzzling; for a careful treatment of this problem see section 8.2.2.4. in Blust (2013), with special reference to Table 8.26.

26741

*keñat tough, elastic (of flesh)

3201

PWMP *keñat tough, elastic (of flesh)

WMP
Kapampangan	ma-kuñat	tough, rubbery, resilient
Cebuano	kúnat	tough and slightly elastic; difficult to chew
Malay	keñat	firm, of flesh

Note: With root *ñat ‘stretch’.

26742

*keñej sink, drown

3202

PMP *keñej sink, drown

WMP
Karo Batak	keneŋ	sink, dive into water, submerge
CMP
Hawu	keña	dive, plunge

Note: With root *-ñej ‘submerge, sink, drown’.

26750

*keŋ₁ hollow, resounding sound

3210

PMP *keŋ₁ hollow, resounding sound

WMP
Iban	kaŋ	kind of frog
OC
Nali	koŋ	to bark
Motu	ko	to shout from a distance, ending in a cooee
Arosi	koo	make unintelligible sounds, as a baby
Tongan	kō	(of dogs) to bark

Note: Also Malay koŋ ‘deep boom’. The final nasal in Nali koŋ is assumed to be due to onomatopoetic retention. Cf. root *-keŋ₃ ‘hollow, resounding sound’.

26751

*keŋ₂ stiff, as a corpse

3211

PMP *keŋ₂ stiff, as a corpse [doublet: *kaŋkaŋ 'cramps, stiffening of the limbs; rigor mortis']

WMP
Karo Batak	keŋ	stiff, stiffened, as a corpse
CMP
Manggarai	keŋ	taut, of a rope

Note: Also Malay jeŋkaŋ ‘stark or stiff in death’, Sundanese reŋkeŋ ‘stiff (of the muscles, or of the arms in very tight sleeves)’.

26743

*keŋkeŋ₁ hollow, resounding sound

3203

PAN *keŋkeŋ₁ hollow, resounding sound [doublet: *kaŋkaŋ 'to bark']

Formosan
Paiwan	k-alʸ-eŋkeŋ	have ringing in the ears
WMP
Ilokano	keŋkéŋ	big-bellied toad that croaks at night
Kankanaey	keŋkéŋ	kind of big-bellied frog; sound of an axe hitting wood
Nias	kõkõ	growl, grumble
Makassarese	keŋkeŋ	bark (of a dog)
OC
Gedaged	kokoŋ	a slit gong; the beat or rhythm of a song
Motu	koko	snore
Nggela	koko	wooden gong
Arosi	ʔoʔo	wooden gong made from a hollowed tree

26744

*keŋkeŋ₂ cramps, stiffening of the limbs

3204

PMP *keŋkeŋ₂ cramps, stiffening of the limbs [doublet: *kaŋkaŋ, *keŋ₂]

WMP
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kekeŋ	a muscle cramp
	ŋekeŋ	to shorten (like a leech shortens itself)
Kelabit	pe-kekeŋ	feel stiff or numb after sitting in one place for a long time
Kayan	k-el-ekeŋ	stiffened, rigid, in convulsions; cramps
Karo Batak	keŋkeŋ	with teeth clenched, as in anger
Javanese	keŋkeŋ	sturdy, stiff, rigid
CMP
Manggarai	ke(ŋ)keŋ	to bridle (horse), keep under control

Note: Also Lun Dayeh kukeŋ ‘muscle cramp’, Bare'e kuku ‘lockjaw’.

26745

*keŋkeŋ₃ shrink

3205

PMP *keŋkeŋ₃ shrink [doublet: *kuŋkuŋ]

WMP
Maranao	keŋkeŋ	shorten, shrink
Kelabit	kekeŋ	to shrink (as clothing)
Bare'e	koko	shrink, grow narrow
CMP
Manggarai	keŋkeŋ	embrace tightly
OC
Gedaged	kokoŋ	narrow; strait; restricted, constricted
Sa'a	koko	narrow, confined
Tongan	koko	press or squeeze so as to make smaller or alter the shape of

Note: Also Maranao kaŋkaŋ ‘shrivel’, Old Javanese kiŋ ‘dry, dried-up, shrivelled’.

31795

*kepal thick (of objects)

9976

PPh *kepal thick (of objects)

WMP
Yogad	kappál	thick (measure of mass)
Binukid	ma-kepal	thick in dimension; dense (as rainclouds)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	me-kepal	of flat objects, thick
Tiruray	gefol	thick
Tboli	fól	thickness; thick, heavy, as cloth; difficult, having deep meaning, as riddles; abundant, as branches
	m-fól	thick
Proto-Sangiric	*kəpal	thick

Note: Also Kadazan Dusun kapa ‘thick (of flat things)’, Kelabit kapal ‘thick’, Kayan (Uma Juman) kapal ‘thick, of planks, etc.; having thick flesh around the seeds, of fruit’.

33326

*ke(m)pal lump, clod, as of earth

11864

POC *ke(m)pal lump, clod, as of earth [disjunct: *kepel]

WMP
Tagalog	kimpál	lump, clod
	kimpal-kimpal-in	to form something into lumps or clods
Iban	kepal	flatten, press down (as heap of rice in dish)
Malay	kəpal	lump; clod
	nasi sa-kəpal	clotted mass of rice grains
	tanah sa-kəpal	clod of earth such as a mourner throws into a grave

26715

*kepay kepay to flap (wings, fins of fish, etc.)

3175

PWMP *kepay kepay to flap (wings, fins of fish, etc.) [doublet: *kapay kipay 'move back and forth']

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kepay-kepay	flap, wave (of the flapping of a bird's wings, or the waving back and forth of a fish's pectoral fins)
Bikol	mag-kupáy	to swim by paddling with the hands
	mag-kupáy-kupáy	to motion with the hands; to beckon
Iban	kepai-kepai	moving, waving, flapping (as leaves, wings)

Note: Also Iban kepai ‘fin’, ŋepai (< kepai) ‘wave, beckon to’.

26716

*kepek flap the wings

3176

PWMP *kepek flap the wings

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kepek	flap the wings
Sasak	kepek	struggle, of chickens when they are slaughtered
Bare'e	kopo	flutter, flap the wings, of birds rising in flight, etc.

Note: With root *-pek ‘sound of breaking’.

31902

*kepel compressed in the fist; what is compressed in the fist, as a ball of rice

10113

PWMP *kepel compressed in the fist; what is compressed in the fist, as a ball of rice

WMP
Tagalog	kipíl ~ kípil	compressed or molded in the hand
Maranao	kempel	to hold in the palm, grip
Tiruray	kefel	to hold by encircling an object with thumb and forefinger
Malay	kəpal	lump, clod
	mə-ŋəpal taŋan	to clench the fist
Old Javanese	kəpəl	what is compressed (held) in the clenched hand, a ball (of rice)
	kəpəl-kəpəl	a light meal (“a few balls of rice”), esp. for breakfast (?)
Javanese	kepel	fist; the amount of food taken in the cupped hands when eating at a ritual meal
	ŋəpəl	to make the hand into a fist
Balinese	kepel	fist; to grasp in the closed hand
Sasak	kəpəl	hold something in the fist
	sə-kəpəl	a fistful

26747

*ke(m)pes deflate

3207

PWMP *ke(m)pes deflate [doublet: *ke(m)pis]

WMP
Ilokano	keppés	empty (seeds; fruits; grains)
	k<um>pés	to shrink from fear; cower
Bontok	kəpə́s	subside, go down, of swelling
Kankanaey	kepés, k-um-pés	become less swollen; shrink; contract; go down; be reduced; subside
Pangasinan	kepés	to empty, of a swelling
Bikol	kúpos	deflated
Mansaka	kupus	to shrink; to decrease in size (as by dehydration)
Malay	ber-kempas-kempis	expand and contract rapidly, as the stomach of a man breathing hard or much frightened

Note: Also Puyuma (Tamalakaw) mu-tpes ‘deflated, of a balloon, the belly of a dead animal’, Ilokano eppés ‘reduce, subside’, Casiguran Dumagat epes ‘retract, shrink’, Maranao kimpis ‘shrivel’, kipes ‘shrink’, Malay kempus ‘hollow, drawn’, Karo Batak gempis ‘empty, flat’, Javanese impes ‘crumpled up, gone flat (of a ball, bladder)’, Makassarese kappisiʔ ‘go flat’.

26717

*kepik dent

3177

PMP *kepik dent

WMP
Malay	kepék	dent
OC
Nggela	ŋgovi	dent

31674

*ke(m)pis shrink, shrivel

9831

PWMP *ke(m)pis shrink, shrivel

WMP
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kepis	of an object, to shrink in volume; to shrivel, as a vegetable dried by the sun
Tausug	kuppis	thin, lacking thickness, empty (as of the stomach, a pillow, tire, balloon, or sack of rice)
Iban	kempis	flat, flattened, deflated
Malay	kəmpis	shrunken
Sasak	kəpes	flat, empty, without air

Note: With root *-pis₁ ‘deflate, empty’.

31167

*kepit press together; pressed together

9180

PAN *kepit press together; pressed together

Formosan
Kavalan	kepit	crowd two things together so that there is not much room between them
	ma-kpit	pressed in
Amis	kepit	to close eyes

9181

PMP *kepit press together; pressed together; carry under the arm, press between the legs

WMP
Iban	kepit	squeeze, press (as sugarcane, a hand caught in a closing door); carry under the arm, hold under the elbow
	kepit baŋkay	caught between, of the inhabitants of a longhouse bilik (family unit) where there has been a death in each of the adjoining bilik so that one’s movements are restricted by taboo (lit. ‘hemmed in by death)
Malay	kempit	carry under the arm
	kepit	pressure between two connected surfaces, e.g. between two fingers or between the arm and the body; carry something under the arm
Toba Batak	hopit	narrow
Rejang	kempit	carry under the armpit
Javanese	ŋempit	to hold or carry under the arm or between the thighs
	kempit-an	that which is carried under the arm
Sasak	kəpit	press something between the thighs
Toratán	kipíʔ	to carry under the arm; to squeeze; tight
CMP
Manggarai	kempét	boil without a head in the armpit
Rembong	kempit	mousetrap
	kepit	nipped, caught between pincers

9182

POC *kobit₁ press together; pressed together

OC
Tuvaluan	kopi	sit a child astride one’s hip; carry under the arm
Anuta	kopi	to embrace
Rarotongan	kopi	a fold, a pleat in cloth, a hem; to hem; doubled together, as of anything hinged or jointed
Maori	kopi	doubled together, as of anything hinged or jointed; shut, closed; gorge of a river; gather up into small compass; nip between the legs
Hawaiian	ʔopi	fold, crease; wrinkled; bend of a wave; to fold, crease

Note: With root *-pit ‘press, squeeze together; narrow’.

31675

*kepkep to seize, hug, embrace

9832

PMP *kepkep to seize, hug, embrace

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kepkép	to fold the arms over the chest
	kepkep-án	to hug, embrace
Bontok	kəpkəp	to hug; to cuddle face to face; to clasp to oneself
Pangasinan	kepkép	to hold in the arms
Tagalog	kipkíp	carried under the arm or armpit
Binukid	kepkep	to put one’s arms around someone; to hug, embrace someone; to clasp something in one’s hands or paws
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kepkep	to embrace
Minangkabau	kakap	to grasp
Sundanese	ŋeukeup-an	lie next to someone with the arm over him/her
	di-keukeup-an	covered with the wings
Old Javanese	a-ŋəkəp-i	to embrace, to lock in one’s arms
	tan pa-kəkəp-an	without the possibility of locking somebody in one’s arms, without a close companion
	k<in>əkəp	to clasp, encircle, embrace
Javanese	ŋekep	to hug, embrace, clasp
Balinese	kekep	to embrace, enfold, hide
Sasak	kəkəp	take under the wings
Mongondow	ali-kokop	kind of creeper that clings to trees

12863

PPh *kepkep-an to hug, embrace

WMP
Ilokano	kepkep-án	to hug, embrace
Central Tagbanwa	kɨpkɨp-an	to hug, embrace

12636

POC *kop-i to hold close

OC
Lau	kokofi	to cover a baby from the sun
Sa'a	kopi	to touch
Arosi	kopi	to put or hold in the lap

Note: With root *-kep₂ ‘to seize, grasp, embrace’.

31904

*kepkép for the hair to lie down flat

10115

PPh *kepkép for the hair to lie down flat

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kəpkəp	short, smooth (of hair or grass)
Bikol	kupkóp	describing hair that is short or plastered down; a crew cut
Cebuano	kupkúp	for hair to be lying down flat, close to the scalp; for hair to become flat on the head; stick close to something for protection

26718

*kepuk beat, crunch, break

3178

PMP *kepuk beat, crunch, break

WMP
Old Javanese	kepuk	onomatopoetic particle (blow)
Balinese	kepuk	break off, break the point off something
Sasak	kepuk	pound dough (preparatory to cooking)
CMP
Manggarai	kepuk	sound of breaking, cracking
Ngadha	kepu	sound of crunching bones or corn on the cob while eating, of clashing swords in fighting; crack, break

Note: With root *-puk₁ ‘thud, clap, break’.

26720

*kepuŋ surround, besiege

3180

PWMP *kepuŋ surround, besiege [doublet: *kepuq]

WMP
Maranao	kepoŋ	harass, attack
Malay	kepoŋ	beleaguering; hemming in. Of an amoker being surrounded to prevent him escaping and doing further mischief
Karo Batak	pe(ŋ)-kepuŋ	surround
Sundanese	ŋəpuŋ	to encircle, close in on, beleaguer
	di-kəpuŋ	be encircled, beleaguered
Old Javanese	kepuŋ	encircle, besiege
Javanese	kepuŋ	surrounded, encircled [Ngoko speech level]
Balinese	kepuŋ	to hunt, chase, pursue

Note: Also Javanese (Krama Inggil) kepaŋ ‘sit in a circle’.

26719

*kepuq enclose, encircle

3179

PWMP *kepuq enclose, encircle [doublet: *kepuŋ]

WMP
Tiruray	kefoʔ	catch a loose animal, catch and restrain a violent person, apprehend an outlaw
Sasak	kepuh	enclose, encircle, surround

26748

*ke(m)pus come to an end

3208

PMP *ke(m)pus come to an end

WMP
Sasak	kempos	youngest child
CMP
Manggarai	kempus	totally destroyed, ruined, burned up
OC
Nggela	ŋgovu	finished
	pisu me ŋgovu	all dead and gone

Note: With root *-pus₁ ‘end, finish’. For the semantic connection of Sasak kempos with the other forms cp. Hanunóo kapús ‘end, last (in time)’, kapús-an ‘youngest child’, and Balinese lampus ‘wipe out; dead’, which contain the same root. A more detailed discussion of this comparison can be found in Blust (1988).

31776

*kerap shine, sparkle, twinkle

9947

PMP *kerap shine, sparkle, twinkle [disjunct: *kelap]

WMP
Maranao	kerap	glisten, sparkle
OC
Arosi	ʔora	to blaze, gleam, shine

34060

*keraq cry of a monkey

12915

PPh *keraq cry of a monkey

WMP
Arta	kèra	cry of a small monkey
Maranao	keraʔ	sound made by the monkey
Tboli	kla	the calling sound of a monkey or young hornbill

Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat kəre ‘the guttural sound of a monkey’.

31905

*keret to sever, cut off

10116

PAN *keret to sever, cut off [doublet: *keRet]

Formosan
Paiwan	keretj	reap with a small knife
WMP
Bontok	kələt	to cut a man’s hair in the native style, that is in bangs across the forehead and around the ears with the back left long
Iban	kerat	cut length or piece, morsel, cut in lengths, cut off (as a piece of sugarcane)
Malay	kərat	to cut through; to sever (the head, navel cord, etc.)
Old Javanese	k<um>ərət	to sever (the head), chop, cut (the throat)

26724

*keriq chattering, crying of monkeys

3184

PAN *keriq chattering, crying of monkeys [doublet: *karaq]

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	paka-ra-a-ri-keriH	(of a monkey) to cry "keriH keriH"
WMP
Malay	keréh	(onom.) the chattering of monkeys

26723

*keriqik shrill sound

3183

PMP *keriqik shrill sound

WMP
Cebuano	kulíʔik	shrill piercing shriek
Iban	kerik	gnash, grind the teeth
Malay	kerik	grating sound
Sundanese	kerik	sound made by a sharp object pulled across a hard surface
Old Javanese	kerik	scrape off
Javanese	kerik	a cricket's chirp
Bare'e	keri	sound of scratching
CMP
Manggarai	kerik	to scream, a scream

Note: Also Cebuano kágit ‘make a creaking sound’, Malay kerit ‘sound of scratching, grating or gnawing’, Mongondow kurik ‘shriek, screech’.

26725

*kerit scratch, grate

3185

PMP *kerit scratch, grate

WMP
Yogad	karrít	scratch; a long visible mark
Malay	kerit	sound of scratching, grating or gnawing
Nias	kori-kori	scraper; rake
CMP
Kambera	kàritu	scratch, carve
Tetun	koi	to scrape, to scratch; to scrape with a cutting instrument

9995

POC *korit scrape, grate, as coconut preparatory to cooking

OC
Manam	kori-kori	scraper
Motu	ori-a	to grate coconut
Nggela	goli	to scrape coconut with a tue (fresh water shell)
Lau	kori	to scrape; to shave
Sa'a	kori	to scrape yams
	kori-si	to scrape yams with henu (k.o. cockle) shell
Arosi	ʔori	to scrape
	ʔori-sia	scraped

Note: Also Dobuan koli ‘to scrape’. With root *-riC₁ ‘sound of ripping, etc.’.

31706

*kerud scrape, grate

9872

PWMP *kerud scrape, grate [doublet: *kerus]

WMP
Maranao	kerod	to thresh grain; to scrape, as in grating coconut
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kerud	to scrape out something, as coconut meat out of a shell
Kelabit	kərud	a scrape or abrasion
	ŋərud	to scrape something
Kenyah (Long Jeeh)	kərut	grater, scraper
Sangir	ma-ŋəhudəʔ	scrape off, scrape out
Proto-South Sulawesi	*kɨrru(t)	shave, scrape

26728

*kerus₁ scrape, grate

3188

PWMP *kerus₁ scrape, grate [doublet: *kerud]

WMP
Bikol	karós	scrape, grate
Maranao	keros	scratch, claw
Palauan	məŋ-órt, k-m-ort	scrape (road, etc.)

31756

*kerus₂ rustling sound, as of leaves in wind

9926

PWMP *kerus₂ rustling sound, as of leaves in wind

WMP
Tagalog	kulós	rustling sound
Cebuano	kulus-kulús	rustling sound made by leaves or paper
Iban	kerus	rustling sound, as of a lizard scuttling over dry leaves

Note: With root *-rus₁ ‘rustling sound’.

26729

*kerut shriveled, wrinkled

3189

PWMP *kerut shriveled, wrinkled [doublet: *kedut]

WMP
Malay	kerut	crease, furrow; deep line of face
Bare'e	koru	wrinkled

31806

*keRa hawksbill turtle: Chelonia imbricata

9996

PCEMP *keRa hawksbill turtle: Chelonia imbricata [disjunct: *keRan]

CMP
Manggarai	héra	sea turtle
Ngadha	kera	large turtle
Palu'e	kea	small turtle on reef
Li'o	kera	tortoise, land turtle
Sika	era	turtle
Hawu	ea	turtle; turtle shell
Rotinese	kea	turtle
OC
Motu	era	turtle, shell turtle
Gilbertese	(tabʷa)-kea	species of turtle with brilliant red shell (Banksbill turtle)
Tuvaluan	kea	a small turtle
Kapingamarangi	gee	hawksbill turtle
Nukuoro	gea	hawksbill turtle
Rennellese	kea	small turtles
Hawaiian	ʔea	hawksbill turtle: Chelone imbricata; the shell of this turtle; reddish-brown, as the color of the Ɂea shell

Note: Osmond and Pawley (2011) list a number of presumed reflexes of this form in languages of the Admiralty Islands, as Titan, Lou kareŋ, Pak, Lenkau keheŋ ‘red parrot’, Titan karahat kareŋ ‘hawksbill turtle’, but none of these are phonologically regular, and the usual referent is ‘red parrot’. Manggarai hera ‘sea turtle’ is assumed to be a loan from a language that has lost final consonants. Nothofer (1992) cites two Sulawesian forms, To Padoe kéha and Kada Toraja kéra ‘shell’ as possible cognates, but these forms apparently mean only ‘shell’, without reference to turtles. If the reference is to turtle shell (which has not been established), then the word in these languages may well be a loan, since both languages are spoken by interior mountain people lacking direct contact with the sea.

30982

*keRan₁ scab on a wound

8883

PAN *keRan₁ scab on a wound [doublet: *keRaŋ₂]

Formosan
Kavalan	qRan	scar left after a boil heals; scab
WMP
Hanunóo	kugán	scab
Cebuano	kugan	dry crust, scab of a sore or wound; for a scab to form
Mongondow	kogan	scab on a wound

Note: Also Bikol kagán ‘scab (on a wound)’, mag-kagán ‘to form a scab’.

31807

*keRan₂ hawksbill turtle: Chelonia imbricata

9997

PCEMP *keRan₂ hawksbill turtle: Chelonia imbricata [disjunct: *keRa]

CMP
Leti	kerna	middle-sized marine turtle with prized shell: Chelonia imbricata
Fordata	eran	turtle with prized shell
Kei	keran	turtle with prized shell
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	eran	turtle

26721

*keRaŋ₁ deep reverberating sound

3181

PMP *keRaŋ₁ deep reverberating sound

WMP
Malay	keraŋ	deep clang
CMP
Rembong	keraŋ	voice of a frog
OC
Arosi	kora	sound of a gong, or tree struck with stick

Note: With probable root *-Raŋ ‘clanging sound’ (cp. roots *-Reŋ ‘groan, moan, snore’, *-Riŋ ‘to ring’, *-Ruŋ ‘roar, rumble’).

26722

*keRaŋ₂ scab, crust on a wound

3182

PAN *keRaŋ₂ scab, crust on a wound [doublet: *keRan]

Formosan
Kavalan	keRaŋ	scab (Blust, fieldnotes)
WMP
Ilokano	keggáŋ	scab, crust
Cebuano	kugaŋ	dry crust, scab of a sore or wound; for a scab to form
Maranao	kegaŋ	scab
Karo Batak	keraŋ	scab, crust on a wound
Proto-Minahasan	*kahaŋ	scab

Note: Zorc (n.d.) gives PPh *keRa[nŋ] ‘scab’. This comparison may be equivalent to that for which Dempwolff (1934-38) reconstructed *keRaŋ ‘dry’.

30983

*keRaŋ₃ dry

8884

PAN *keRaŋ₃ dry [doublet: *keRiŋ]

Formosan
Puyuma	k<əm>əRaŋ	to grill quickly directly over the fire (meat, fish, boar skin)
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	k<em>a-keRaŋ	to roast right on the fire, to broil
WMP
Bontok	kəgáŋ	drought; a long, dry season; to be underdeveloped, of rice which has not had sufficient rain
Kankanaey	kegáŋ	drained; dried up (applied to rivers, ricefields, etc.)
Toba Batak	horaŋ	dry, rainless, of the sky when there is no sign of rain
Sangir	kahaŋ	dry sago leaf
	k<um>ahaŋ	dry, become shrivelled or withered
CMP
Leti	kerna	dry (as grass, the land, one’s throat from thirst)
Luang	kεrnə	dry

8885

POC *koRaŋ₁ dried up, scorched, shrivelled

OC
Nggela	ŋgola	scorched, sunburnt; withered, shrivelled, of leaf
Arosi	gora	to shrivel up and turn brown, as a green leaf in the fire
Mota	kor	to become dry, with heat or time; coconut in its last condition before it falls from the tree; a breadfruit artificially dried

Note: Also Ilokano kerráaŋ ‘withered, dry’, Ngaju Dayak keaŋ ‘dry (as wood); empty’.

31930

*keRas hard, strong, inflexible; vehement

10146

PMP *keRas hard, strong, inflexible; vehement

WMP
Iban	keras	hard, severe; determined, eager; obstinate
Malay	kəras	hard; stiff; inelastic; (fig.) obstinate; of things being hard as stone or impenetrable as hard soil; severe, as a drought; stiff, as a tongue that cannot pronounce foreign words properly
Karo Batak	me-keras	hard, of cooked rice
Toba Batak	horas	vehement, hard, of words
Old Javanese	kas	hardness, inflexibility
	(m)a-kas	hard, inflexible, unyielding, obstinate
Javanese	a-kas	hard and dry, crusty
Tae'	karraʔ	hard, as soil
	ma-karraʔ	hard, raw, rough
Buginese	ma-ti-kɨrrɨʔ	strong, powerful (e.g. the sun’s rays)
Makassarese	karrasaʔ	fearsome, imposing; evil, ill-omened
CMP
Tetun	ma-kaʔas	strong, durable, resistant, sturdy

Note: Also Ngaju Dayak karas ‘harsh, strong, vehement’ (< Banjarese), Malagasy héri ‘power, strength, force, might; heavy, as applied to things weighed’, Javanese keras ‘hard, harsh, strong’ (< Malay). Mills (1975:731) posits Proto-South Sulawesi *kɨrras, but assigns it no gloss, and suggests that it may be a product of borrowing from Malay.

31857

*keRaw to dry up

10057

PPh *keRaw to dry up

WMP
Bontok	kəlaw	to be dried out, of a pondfield
Maranao	kegaw	crisp from heating
Binukid	kegaw	to dry, shrivel up (as beans that have been planted)

30415

*keRe vulva, vagina

7548

POC *keRe vulva, vagina

OC
Bugotu	kethe-	vagina
Nggela	kele	vulva
Arosi	ere-	vulva
Gilbertese	kere	sexual organs (feminine), exterior

Note: Also Kwaio kee ‘vagina’.

30247

*keRet cut something slender or soft; reap crops

7120

PAN *keRet cut something slender or soft; reap crops [doublet: *keret]

Formosan
Seediq	kelut	slice, cut, incise (used especially for harvesting crops and in cutting the human body
Pazeh	mu-kexet	to cut (to hurt); cut a piece; cut grass
Amis	klet	use a sickle to cut off twine
Thao	klhit	cut something slender (as miscanthus)
	ka-klhit	scythe, harvesting knife with a curved blade about half a meter long; the stalks are pulled toward oneself up against the blade
Puyuma	kərət	cut, as a rope, or the flesh; cut into thin slices (as meat); slash with a small knife
Paiwan	keret	reap with a small knife
WMP
Kalamian Tagbanwa	kɨgɨt	to bite
Iban	kerat	to cut length or piece, morsel, cut in lengths; cut off (as a piece of sugarcane)
Malay	kərat	to cut through, to sever
Toba Batak	horot	notch, as one makes in a tree; cut, incision
Sasak	kərət	to cut

9994

POC *koRot cut off

OC
Motu	koro-a	to notch, to carve
Sa'a	olo	cut the ends off; to cut the hair of the head
	olo-i	to sever the shoots of

7121

PAN *k<um>eRet cut something slender

Formosan
Thao	k<un>lhit	cut something slender, as rice stalks in a paddy, sword grass, a rope, etc.
Puyuma	k<əm>ərət	cut something into thin slices, as meat
Paiwan	k<m>eretj	reap with a small knife (hemp or any other plant)

7122

PAN *keRet-en be cut

Formosan
Pazeh	kexet-en	be hurt, grazed, abraded (as with miscanthus leaves)
Thao	klhit-in	be cut by someone

Note: Also Ngaju Dayak karat ‘be severed, cut off’, ma-ŋarat ‘to sever, cut off’, Old Javanese kərət ‘to sever (the head), chop, cut (the throat)’, Javanese keret ‘section, joint (of bamboo, sugarcane)’, ŋeret ‘to cut (sugarcane, bamboo) into sections with a knife, using a circular motion around the stalk’.

30984

*keRiŋ dry

8886

PWMP *keRiŋ dry [doublet: *keRaŋ]

WMP
Kadazan Dusun	koiŋ	to dry (in the sun)
	koiŋ-on	to be dried
Malay	kəriŋ	dry (as fish in the sun, i.e. absolutely parched)
	kəriŋ əmbun	when the dew has just dried (about 7 a.m.)
Old Javanese	a-kiŋ	dry, dried up, shrivelled
	ka-kiŋ-an	dried up

Note: Also Kankanaey kigíŋ ‘dried, dry, as meat, fish’, Kalamian Tagbanwa kagiŋ ‘thoroughly dry’.

33850

*keRiq sword grass: Imperata cylindrica

12663

PMP *keRiq sword grass: Imperata cylindrica

WMP
Sangir	e-ké	sword grass: Imperata cylindrica
CMP
Ngadha	kéri	sword grass: Imperata cylindrica
Li'o	ki	sword grass: Imperata cylindrica

Note: This comparison was first proposed by Verheijen (1984).

29906

(Formosan only)

*keRiw hemp plant; hemp

6574

PAN *keRiw hemp plant; hemp

Formosan
Kavalan	qRiw	string, thread; hemp plant, ramie/fiber
Saisiyat (Taai)	ka-kLiw	hemp plant
	sin-kLiw	hemp fiber
Atayal (Squliq)	kgiy	hemp plant
Pazeh	kixiw	hemp fiber
Amis	kliw	thread; the plant from which string or thread is made: China Grass-Ramie (Boehmeria frustescens)
Thao	klhiw	hemp plant; hemp; rope
Bunun	liv	hemp plant
Puyuma	keriw	white ramie: Boehmeria frustescens. keriw is used in rituals, in particular those dedicated to humans; in effect, ramie is the symbol of life

Note: Up to the mid-twentieth century some Formosan aborigines still used hemp to weave clothing. To prepare it for weaving it was first soaked in water to soften the fibers.

26726

*keRkeR shake, tremble

3186

PAN *keRkeR shake, tremble [doublet: *gerger₁]

Formosan
Amis	kelkel	heart response causing a person to shake
WMP
Cebuano	kugkúg	shiver from cold, usually with quivering lips

26749

*ke(R)lap flash, shine

3209

PMP *ke(R)lap flash, shine

WMP
Malay	kerlap	flash, glisten, as the wings of flying butterflies
OC
Arosi	ʔora	blaze, gleam, shine

Note: With root *-lap ‘flash, sparkle’.

26727

*keRteŋ kind of striped or spotted marine fish, grouper: Epinephelus spp.

3187

PMP *keRteŋ kind of striped or spotted marine fish, grouper: Epinephelus spp.

WMP
Ilokano	kagtéŋ	striped marine fish somewhat over eight inches in length
Bikol	kugtóŋ	large saltwater fish
Cebuano	kugtúŋ	name given to very large groupers: Epinephelus spp.
Malay	ikan kertaŋ	a perch: Epinephelus pantherinus
OC
Nauna	kot	largest kind of grouper -- spotted
Loniu	kot	medium-sized rock cod or grouper
Likum	ni-kok	large grouper, with marks like a snake

26730

*keRuŋ resounding sound

3190

PAN *keRuŋ resounding sound

Formosan
Amis	kloŋ	resounding noise, as to hear a door being closed
WMP
Iban	keroŋ	howl of a dog
Malay	keruŋ	deep booming sound

Note: With root *-Ruŋ ‘roar, rumble’.

31880

*keRut to gnaw, sound of gnawing on something

10087

PMP *keRut to gnaw, sound of gnawing on something

WMP
Malay	kərut	harsh scraping sound; sound of grating teeth
OC
Arosi (Eastern)	koru	to gnaw, eat hard food, as a biscuit

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31731

*kesap blink, wink

9899

PWMP *kesap blink, wink

WMP
Tagalog	kisáp	a blink, a wink
	k<um>isáp	to blink, to wink; to shine with an unsteady light; to twinkle
Iban	ŋesap	to blink, to wink
	kesa-kesap	blinking, winking
Malay	kəsap-kəsip	blinking of the eyes

Note: Also Balinese kesep ‘moment’ (cross-referenced to kejep ‘twinkling of an eye, moment’).

30087

*kese keep to oneself; be different; alone

6803

PCEMP *kese keep to oneself; be different; alone

CMP
Yamdena	kese	to separate, distinguish oneself, be different, alone; seclude oneself
OC
Nggela	hege ^<M	alone, by oneself; do something alone, be alone; unique
Lau	ʔete	different, of another sort or kind; strange, foreign, queer, odd, curious; various; alone, apart, for oneself only; keep food for oneself
Arosi	ʔete-a	different; alone
Mota	gese	keep apart; eat alone, not giving to others
Southeast Ambrym	kes-, -kes	alone; recorded only in derivatives
Tongan	kehe	different (either in kind or merely in identity); special, abnormal, unusual
Samoan	ʔese	other, different, foreign, alien; wrong; strange, unusual
	faʔa-ese-a	lonely, isolated
Tuvaluan	kehe	different, be different
Kapingamarangi	gee	wrong; other
Nukuoro	gee	different, of a different sort; away from; strange
Rennellese	kese	varied, strange; unprincipled, uninvited, deceitful
Rarotongan	kē	enmity, hostility; strange, different, not the same; hostile, adverse
	aka-kē-ia	estranged, alienated
Maori	kē	different, other, of non-identity; different, of another kind; strange, extraordinary
Hawaiian	ʔe	different, foreign, strange, peculiar; heathen (Biblical)

6804

PCEMP *kese-kese varied, different (?)

CMP
Yamdena	ke-kese	individual, particular
OC
Lau	ʔete-ʔete	various
Arosi	ʔete-ʔete	alone
Tongan	kehe-kehe	different from one another; various
Samoan	ʔese-ʔese-ŋa	difference
Kapingamarangi	gee-gee	different
Nukuoro	gee-gee	completely differently
Rennellese	kese-kese	be different, opposite, varied
	kese-kese-ʔaŋa	difference, opposite; be different

Note: This comparison is valuable in showing that CMP and OC languages underwent a period of common development apart from other AN languages, as it contains an innovative mid-front vowel. The original sense appears to have been ‘keep to oneself’ --- a behavioral trait that was considered aberrant in traditional societies, where survival often depended on sharing and mutual support. This sense is preserved in several attested OC reflexes, but in Proto-Polynesian the earlier sense of the unaffixed base seems to have evolved into something closer to ‘different, strange’ (perhaps even ‘untrustworthy’). While this was certainly a component of the original sense, it was not its primary meaning. However, the original sense re-emerges in affixed Polynesian forms such as Samoan faʔa-ese-a ‘lonely, isolated’.

32626

*keseR strength, vigor, force

11019

PAN *keseR strength, vigor, force

Formosan
Puyuma	kəsər	strong
WMP
Bikol	kusóg	brawn, muscle, strength; vigor; volume (as of a radio)
Hanunóo	kusúg	strength, etc. (speed)
Aklanon	kusóg	bicep; strength, vigor, power
Waray-Waray	kusóg	strength, energy, power
	kusg-án	strong; energetic; powerful
Kalamian Tagbanwa	kɨtɨl	strong
Agutaynen	ketel	strength; vigor
	pa-ketel-an	to push hard to get a job done; to exert effort; to make something loud, strong (as one’s voice)
Hiligaynon	kusúg	energy, strength
	mag-kusúg	to become strong, to be energetic
Cebuano	kusúg	fast, rapid; loud, heavy or forceful motion; selling briskly; avid doer of something; have strength to do something; do something avidly, at a rate more than normal; dynamic strength, force; muslce; exert strength, do something energetically
	pa-kusúg	contest of strength (as weightlifting)
	ka-kusg-ún	speed; loudness or intensity; briskness of sales
	kusg-án	strong
Binukid	pa-ŋeseg	to exert strength, do (something) forcefully, energetically; to put all one’s energy into something
Bonggi	kosog	strong
Tausug	kusug	strength, power, vigor
Tombonuwo	o-kosog	stubborn, obstinate
Sangir	kəsihəʔ	violent, blow its hardest (of the wind)

11020

PAN *ma-keseR strong, vigorous, energetic, forceful

Formosan
Kavalan	ma-qseR	strong
Puyuma	ma-kəsər	is strong
WMP
Bikol	ma-kusóg	powerful, strong, vigorous; heavy (as a rain); loud (as a radio); aloud (as in reading)
	ma-kusog-án	fearless, daring
	ma-kusog-ón	raging, terrific, turbulent, violent, wild (as a storm); blaring (as a radio)
	pa-kusog-ón	to strengthen, to fortify, invigorate, nourish; to amplify (make louder)
Aklanon	ma-kúsog	strong, powerful, mighty
Waray-Waray	ma-kusóg	strong; energetic; powerful
Kalamian Tagbanwa	ma-ktɨl	strong
Hiligaynon	ma-kusúg	strong, energetic, healthy
Palawan Batak	ma-kəsə́g	strong
Subanun (Sindangan)	ma-sɨkɨg ^<M	strong
Binukid	ma-keseg	forceful, strong
Tausug	ma-kusug	strong, vigorous, powerful (of rain, coughing), heavy

11021

PAN *pa-ka-keseR (gloss uncertain)

Formosan
Kavalan	paqa-seR	to apply force
Puyuma	pa-ka-ma-kəsər	make someone strong

Note: Also Pangasinan kásil ‘power, vigor, strength, health’, ma-ksíl ‘strong, forceful; healthy’. This comparison was first brought to my attention by Daniel Kaufman.

26731

*kesiŋ laugh

3191

PWMP *kesiŋ laugh

WMP
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kesiŋ	laugh
Mongondow	kosiŋ	laugh

26732

*keskes₁ scratch, scrape

3192

PAN *keskes₁ scratch, scrape [doublet: *kaskas, *kiSkiS]

Formosan
Amis	mi-keskes	scratch
WMP
Cebuano	kuskus, k-al-uskus	scrape or scratch to remove something from a surface
Malay	kekas	scratching up the earth for food, of fowls

10069

POC *kokos scratch, scrape

OC
Tongan	kokoh-i ~ koh-i	to scratch (with a sharp point); to strike (a match)

26733

*keskes₂ wrap tightly around

3193

PWMP *keskes₂ wrap tightly around [doublet: *likes 'wind around']

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-keskes	to be rolled up
	ma-ŋeskes	to roll up (as sleeves)
Ayta Abellan	kehkeh	to be wrapped up with, bound
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	keskes	of a snake, to wrap itself around something
Karo Batak	keskes	tighten (as a knot)
Sasak	kekes	roll up

Note: Dempwolff's (1934-38) *bekes, *bu(ŋ)kus ‘wrap up, bundle’, together with Maranao kokos ‘cover, wrap’, Malay biŋkis ‘bale, parcel’, likas ‘winder for newly-made thread’, Javanese likas-an ‘reel (for yarn)’, Balinese likas ‘to reel, wind (line, cord)’ suggest a root series *kas, *-kes, *-kis₂, *-kus.

31931

*ketak to cluck, or cackle; make a clucking or cackling sound

10147

PWMP *ketak to cluck, or cackle; make a clucking or cackling sound

WMP
Malay	kətak	a rap, a tap
	ber-kətak	to cluck, of a fowl
Mongondow	mo-kotak	to cackle, of hens (as when they have just laid an egg)

31757

*ketas to cut, sever

9927

PWMP *ketas to cut, sever

WMP
Isneg	kassāt	to cut open
Bontok	kəsat	to cut, as a binding, rope or rattan
Tiruray	ketas	to cut something with a knife
Iban	ketas	to cut anything taut (knot, lashing)

Note: With root *-tas ‘cut through, sever, rip’.

26734

*keteb to bite

3194

PMP *keteb to bite [disjunct: *ketep]

WMP
Ilokano	kettéb	a bite
	ketteb-én	to bite
Bontok	kətə́b	bite someone, as to cause injury
Binukid	keteb	to bite a small piece out of something; to bite one’s tongue, lips, etc.
CMP
Alune	kete	to bite
Proto-Ambon	*kĕtĕ	to bite

Note: Possibly with root *-teb ‘prune, graze’.

31980

*keted large leg muscle

10204

PWMP *keted large leg muscle

WMP
Kayan	keten	the long muscle of tender meat in an animal carcass
Mongondow	kotod	large leg muscle

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

31932

*keteg beating of the heart; pulse

10148

PWMP *keteg beating of the heart; pulse

WMP
Tagalog	kitíg	pulsation; palpitation; throb
Sundanese	kətəg	the beating or thumping of the heart
Old Javanese	kətəg-kətəg	the signs of life and esp. emotion, including (quickened) breathing and heartbeat as well as more general movements
Javanese	keteg	heart, heartbeats
	keteg taŋan	pulse (rate)
Balinese	keteg	heartbeat, pulse

31937

*ketek sound of dull clucking

10153

PWMP *ketek sound of dull clucking

WMP
Cebuano	kutuk-kutúk	sound made by chickens in summoning other chickens
Malay (Ambon)	bər-kətak	to cluck, of a fowl
Toba Batak	h<um>otok	to make a noise; be loud
Javanese	keṭek	to make a tongue-clicking sound (to a person to express disapproval, to an animal to urge it on, etc.)

Note: Also Cebuano kuru-kutúk ‘sound made by chickens in summoning other chickens’.

31906

*ketél to pinch off

10117

PPh *ketél to pinch off [doublet: *ketil]

WMP
Ilokano	kettél	a pinch
	ag-kettél	to pick with the fingers
Cebuano	kutúl	pinch something hard with the thumb and the index finger

10118

PPh *ketel-én be pinched off

WMP
Ilokano	kettel-én	to pick, pluck; pinch; cut short; snap off; spoil; frustrate
Cebuano	kutul-ún	to pinch

26735

*keteŋ straighten out, of a limb, etc.

3195

PMP *keteŋ straighten out, of a limb, etc. [doublet: *kedeŋ, *kezeŋ 'stand']

WMP
Maranao	keteŋ	to pull (as a rope)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	keteŋ	straighten out an object, such as one's arm, a piece of wire, etc.
Mansaka	kutuŋ	to pull taut (as string); to parade in a straight line
Malay	ketaŋ	taut, tightly astretch
Karo Batak	keteŋ	stretched taut, distended, of the belly
Javanese	keṇṭeŋ(-an)	stretched thread, rope (used to trace a line, etc.)
Sangir	kətiŋ	taut, to stretch til taut
Tontemboan	kətəŋ	tight, taut
OC
Tolai	ot	straight
Bugotu	goto-hi	stretch the arms, legs, body
Nggela	goto	fathom, measure of both arms extended
Arosi	ʔoo	straight; stretch the legs, straighten
Fijian	koto	to lie in a place

Note: Also Ilokano kettáŋ ‘press down, weigh down -- in order to straighten something crooked’.

31299

*ketep₁ to bite

9363

PMP *ketep₁ to bite [disjunct: *keteb]

WMP
Tausug	mag-kutup	to bite or take a nip of something (usually hot chili peppers)
Kadazan Dusun	kotop	to graze, gnaw
	kotop-on	to graze, bite on
Lun Dayeh	ketep	an insect bite or sting
Kelabit	kətəp	to bite
Kayan	ketep	crunched by teeth
Malay	mə-ŋətap bibir	to bite the lips, e.g. in anger or desperation
Nias	ŋetep	bite off something with the incisors, gnaw on
Tae'	me-kotoʔ	to bite
CMP
Alune	kete	to bite
Proto-Ambon	*kĕtĕ	to bite

32029

*ketep₂ reaping knife; to reap grain

10258

PWMP *ketep₂ reaping knife; to reap grain

WMP
Iban	ketap	knife for reaping grain, esp. padi; this is a half disc of iron with a straight edge of 3” - 4” sharpened, set across a short stick or bamboo which is grasped in the right hand; the stalk is held with thumb and forefinger while the middle finger presses it against the knife to cut it
Tae'	keʔteʔ	cut off rice ears
	maʔ-keʔteʔ	to harvest rice

31707

*keter to shiver, quiver

9873

PWMP *keter to shiver, quiver

WMP
Pangasinan	ketél	to shiver from the cold
Ngaju Dayak	keter	quivering of the chin
Malay	kətar	to quiver
	buŋa kətar	artificial flowers on wires; worn as a headdress
	tər-kətar-kətar	trembling all over
Toba Batak	h<um>ontor	to tremble, shiver, quiver; to oscillate, of wood on which a musical instrument is played
Old Javanese	kətər	trembling, shaking, quivering, vibrating, (soft) rumbling
Javanese	keter	to shake, tremble

Note: Also Malay gətar ’to quiver’, Javanese geter ‘to shake, tremble’. With root *-ter ‘shiver, tremble’.

26738

*keti dry up; low tide

3198

PWMP *keti dry up; low tide [doublet: *qati, *qeti₁]

WMP
Kapampangan	káti(h)	low water-level
Tagalog	káti	low tide, low ebb
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	keti	of water, to dry up as a result of heat; boil away, evaporate
Tiruray	keti	low tide
Tboli	keti	dried up; water absorbed
Kayan	ketéʔ	dried up; boiled dry; water absorbed

31834

*ketik snap the fingers; the sound produced by snapping the fingers

10030

PWMP *ketik snap the fingers; the sound produced by snapping the fingers

WMP
Tausug	k<um>utik	to snap two fingers together, making a sound
Kadazan Dusun	kotik	to tick, click (sound), switch on (a switch)
Malay	kətek	a ticking sound
Old Javanese	kətik	kind of bird or other animal of which the sound is compared to that of the gecko
Javanese	ketik-ketik	the sound of typewriting
Balinese	keṭék	the sound of snapping finger and thumb
	keṭék-keṭék	to snap one’s fingers often

Note: Also Kambera katiku ‘rap, tap, knock’ (< *katik). With root *-tik₂ 'ticking sound’.

26736

*ketil pinch off

3196

PAN *ketil pinch off [doublet: *geCel, *getil]

Formosan
Amis	ktil	pinch with fingernails
Thao	ktir	pinch with a twisting motion (threat to a misbehaving child)
	k<un>tir	to pinch
WMP
Tagalog	kitíl	cut off (said of stems of plants, flowers, fruits)
Malay	ketil	pinching, nipping
OC
Fijian	koti	to clip, to shear
	koti-laka	to cut off small things; said also of mats
Tongan	kosi	cut with scissors or shears or clippers, to clip or shear; to cut grass with a lawn-mower; (of rats) to gnaw through, to gnaw a hole in
Samoan	ʔoti	to cut (with scissors, clippers, etc.)

Note: Also Puyuma (Tamalakaw) hetir ‘pinch between the fingers’, Casiguran Dumagat kítil ‘pinch off the tips of leafy vegetables for cooking (with the fingernails or finger tips)’. Zorc (1981) gives PPh *ketel ‘cut off, nip (with fingernails)’.

26737

*ketiR avoid someone out of fear

3197

PWMP *ketiR avoid someone out of fear

WMP
Kayan	ketih	to avoid a person from fear or shyness; to regret as a result of previous experience; quiet and meek in behavior
Javanese	ketir	fearful, apprehensive

Note: Also Toba Batak hodir ‘fear, be afraid of’.

31791

*ketket to bite, gnaw

9971

PWMP *ketket to bite, gnaw [doublet: *kitkit, *ŋetŋet]

WMP
Bontok	kətkət	to eat raw vegetables; to gnaw on, as gristle
Pangasinan	ketkét	to bite (includes insect and snake bites)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ketket	of any sharp-toothed animal, to gnaw away; to gnaw a hold in something
Tausug	kutkut	a bite
	kutkut-un	to bite (something)
Kadazan Dusun	kokot	to bite
	k<in>okot	bitten
Tatana	mo-ŋokot	to bite
Murut (Paluan)	aŋ-kokot	to bite
Lawangan	kɨkɨt	to bite
Taboyan	ŋɨkɨt	to bite
Malagasy	héhitra	a grasp, a clutch, a bite; seizure
Maloh	kokot	to bite
Toba Batak	mar-si-hohot di	hold tightly to; enduring
Javanese	keket	stay firmly in place; stick to or on (Pigeaud 1938)

31819

*ketuk to knock, pound

10010

PMP *ketuk to knock, pound

WMP
Kayan (Long Atip)	ŋətuk	pound something into very small pieces
Malay	kə<r>tok	a dull knocking such as the tap of a mallet or the sound of a wooden bell
	kətok	to rap, to make the sound “tok”
	kətok-kətok	a bamboo cylinder with a slit along its surface that is beaten as a sounding board to call people together
Karo Batak	ketuk	a bamboo noisemaker that is struck to drive off birds, sound an alarm, etc.
Toba Batak	hotuk	a clapping device used to scare wild animals from the crops
Proto-South Sulawesi	*kɨtto(k)	to hit
CMP
Rembong	ketuk	sound of the teeth chattering

Note: Also Tagalog katók ‘sharp knock, rap’, katók ‘to knock, to rap’. With root *-tuk₂ ‘knock, pound, beat’.

29956

(Formosan only)

*ketun cut, sever

6639

PAN *ketun cut, sever

Formosan
Kavalan	ktun	to cut up (as firewood)
	ktu-ktun-an	to chop off
Amis	kton	cut something long, with literal and figurative meanings (includes promises and agreements)
Thao	ktun	cut rope or thread

8245

PAN *k<um>etun chop up, as firewood

Formosan
Kavalan	k<um>tun	chop wood, chop off
Thao	k<un>tun	to cut rope or thread

30503

*ketuq pick, pluck, break off

7732

PMP *ketuq pick, pluck, break off

WMP
Mapun	kattuʔ	to pick (fruit, vegetables, flowers)
Kadazan Dusun	kotuʔ	to pick, pluck (as vegetables, fruit)
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kotu	pick, break off
Proto-South Sulawesi	*ketu	break, break off
CMP
Rotinese	ketu	to break off; to pluck, harvest
Yamdena	keti	to pluck off with the hand
	r-ket’d fjase	rice harvest

31938

*ketut flatulence, fart

10154

PWMP *ketut flatulence, fart

WMP
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	ketut	passing gas
Kayan	ketut	noise of passing flatulence
Ngaju Dayak	ketut	fart
	ma-ŋetut	to fart
Iban	kentut	to break wind, fart
Malay	kəntut	the noise or smell of breaking wind
	ber-kəntut	to break wind
	pokok kəntut-kəntut	generic for certain trees that exhale certain offensive odors
Sasak (Sewela)	kətut	anus

Note: Dempwolff (1938) also included the phonologically irregular form Malagasy ketutra ‘flatus ventris’, but I am unable to find any such form in Richardson (1885). With root *-tut ‘flatulence’.

31808

*kezap to flicker

9998

PWMP *kezap to flicker [disjunct: *kezep]

WMP
Tagalog	kuráp	wink of an eye; blink; blinking; flicker; shimmer; a faint gleam or shine
	i-kuráp	to wink or blink the eyes
	k<um>uráp-kuráp	to keep blinking
Cebuano	kuráp-kuráp	for lights to flicker; grope in the dark
Bahasa Indonesia	mə-ŋəjap	to flicker (of lamps, lightning, etc.)

31835

*kezat startled

10031

PWMP *kezat startled [doublet: *kezut]

WMP
Cebuano	kurát	be startled or frightened by something sudden
Bahasa Indonesia	kəjat	be stiff, rigid, as with fear (Echols and Shadily)

26739

*kezem close the eyes

3199

PAN *kezem close the eyes [doublet: *pezem]

Formosan
Paiwan	tji-kezem	have the eyes closed
WMP
Ilokano	kerrém	close the eyes
Isneg	mag-kaddám	to close one’s eyes
Bontok	kədəm	eyelash
	kədm-ən	shut one’s eyes tightly, as when they are hurt
Ifugaw	kodóm	eyelids; to close and open the eyes
Rungus Dusun	k<um>odom	close the eyes
Murut (Paluan)	k<um>orom	close the eyes
	k<əm>odom	close the eyes
Malay	kejam	closing the eye, = pĕjam; not mere winking or blinking, but forced or deliberate

31792

*kezeŋ to stand; straighten out

9972

PMP *kezeŋ to stand; straighten out [doublet: *keteŋ, *kedeŋ]

WMP
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kəjəŋ	to stand
Old Javanese	kəjəŋ	stiff (of arms or legs, e.g. from sitting in a cramped position, as the result of damage, etc.)
Sasak	kəjəŋ	stiff, erect (of penis in vagina)

Note: Also Balinese kejéŋ ’stiff, not flexible (finger or toe)’.

30895

*kezep to blink, wink, momentarily close the eye

8726

PWMP *kezep to blink, wink, momentarily close the eye

WMP
Kelabit	kədʰəp	a blink, act of blinking
	kədʰəp-kədʰəp	blink constantly or repeatedly
Kayan	kejep	a blink, or wink of the eye
	kejep-kejep	blinking; lights flashing on and off
Bintulu	k<əm>əjəp	to blink
	kəjəp kəjəp	to flicker, of a fire
Malay	se-kejap mata	closing the eye for a moment; a moment
Malay (Jakarta)	kejep	to blink
Old Javanese	kəjəp	closing the eyes, sleeping; to close the eyes, sleep
Javanese	kejep	a wink, blink (Krama)
Sasak	kəjəp	blink the eyes

Note: Also Maranao kadiap ‘blink; moment’ (< Malay), Bintulu kəjəb ‘blinking’, k<əm>əjəb ‘to blink’, Bintulu k<əm>əjəm ‘to blink’, Sasak kəjep ‘blink the eyes’. This comparison is imperfect, since the Cebuano form indicates *kezap kezap, while the Kayan and Bintulu forms point to *kezep kezep. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is borrowing from Malay. However, as the Maranao word shows, Malay loans in Philippine languages normally come from the Brunei dialect, in which *e had already merged with *a. Moreover, as shown below, there is a pattern of reduplicated forms, most of which begin with *k, representing the meanings ‘flicker, of flames; blinking, of eyes’ in many languages, thus increasing the probability that kuráp-kuráp and kəjəp kəjəp continue an inherited pattern.

The reduplication in this form is clearly iconic of the repetitive brightening and dimming of a flickering fire, a pattern that is also shown by unrelated forms that use reduplication to express the same meaning, as with Ilokano ag-kudre-kudrép ‘flicker’ (< kudrép ‘dim; overcast; obscure; indistinct’), ag-patáy-patáy ‘flicker’ (< patáy ‘death’), Bikol kimát-kimát ‘flickering, twinkling; shimmering; blinking; twitching’, mag-kimát-kimát ‘to flicker, twinkle; to shimmer; to twitch or blink (the eye)’, Mansaka kilam-kilam ‘to sparkle; to flame; to flash; to glisten’, Tiruray kemat-kemat ‘flickering’, Kiput kidəp- kidəp ‘to blink (involuntarily); to flicker, of flames’, Iban kesap-kesap ‘blink, winking’, Malay ter-kelip-kelip ‘twinkling; shimmering; blinking’, Balinese kijap-kijep ‘blink the eyes’, Tae' maʔ-millo-millo ‘to flicker, of a small flame’, etc. The meanings ‘flicker’ and ‘blink’ are related through the rapid alternation of brightening and dimming, whether at the source of light, or at the source of perception.

26740

*kezet jerk, startled

3200

PWMP *kezet jerk, startled [doublet: *ke(ŋ)zuC, 'startled', *ke(ŋ)zut 'frightened']

WMP
Kayan	kejet	twitch, pulsation
Balinese	kejet-kejet	be convulsed; death agony

Note: Also Kapampangan kirút ‘surprise (someone)’, Javanese kejèt ‘to twitch in death throes’.

31796

*kezuC to jerk suddenly, jump when startled

9977

PAN *kezuC to jerk suddenly, jump when startled [doublet: *kezet]

Formosan
Paiwan	mi-keduts	to jump from shock or sudden pain

9978

PMP *kezut₁ to start, jump when startled

WMP
Iban	kejut	to jerk, tug sharply (as on a fishline); startled
Malay	kəjut	stiffening with fear; terrified
	tər-kəjut	startled
	di-kəjut-kan	awakened from sleep
Balinese	kejut	alarm, consternation

31797

*kezut to pinch, as with the nails

9979

PWMP *kezut₂ to pinch, as with the nails

WMP
Itbayaten	akdot	pinch
	akdot-en	to pinch, to press and/or twist between nails of forefinger and thumb; to squeeze
Isneg	Kindutān	a spirit who pinches his victim and causes those parts of his body to swell
Itawis	mak-kaddút	to pinch
Casiguran Dumagat	kədut	to pinch someone; to tear a small piece of tobacco off a tobacco leaf for a betel nut chew
Tagalog	kurót	a pinch; a squeeze between the thumb and the forefinger
Bikol	kudót	a pinch with the nails
Aklanon	kurót	to pinch
	saŋ-kurót	little, few, a little bit, just a little
Cebuano	kurút ~ kúrut	to pinch, squeeze hard using the thumb and the sides of the bent forefingers
Maranao	kedot	to pinch
Binukid	kurut	to pinch someone or something
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kezut	to pinch (listed only in the English index)
Kadazan Dusun	kodut	to pinch, nip
Ida'an Begak	kədtut	to pinch
Singhi Land Dayak	kujet ^<M	to pinch
Proto-Sangiric	*kədut	to pinch

9980

PWMP *ma-ŋezut to pinch someone or something

WMP
Yami	ma-ŋdot	to pinch someone
Tagalog	ma-ŋurót	to nip; to pinch with the thumb and finger, or with the nails
Kadazan Dusun	mo-ŋodut	to nip, pinch
Murut (Timugon)	maŋ-karut	to pinch
Sangir	ma-ŋəduʔ	to pinch with the fingertips and nails
Mongondow	mo-koyut	picking of vegetables, etc., but especially of rice; to harvest

9981

PPh *k<um>ezut to pinch

WMP
Isneg	k<um>dut	to scratch
Tagalog	k<um>urót	to nip; to pinch with the thumb and finger, or with the nails
Murut (Timugon)	k<um>arut	to pinch

9982

PWMP *kedut-en to pinch someone

WMP
Yami	a-kdot-en	to pinch
Isneg	kaddut-án	to nip, to pinch
Tagalog	kurut-ín	to pinch someone
Bikol	kudot-ón	to pinch with the nails
Kadazan Dusun	kodut-on	to be pinched
Murut (Timugon)	karut-on	something that is pinched

Note: Also Ilokano kuddót ‘to pinch using the nails’, kuddut-én ‘to pinch between the fingers’, Pangasinan karót ‘to pinch’.

TOP ka ke ki ko ku kw

30929

*ki- prefixed to a noun means ‘to get, obtain, collect, gather’ (noun)

8785

PAN *ki- prefixed to a noun means ‘to get, obtain, collect, gather’ (noun)

Formosan
Kavalan	qi-	to pluck, pick up, harvest (panay ‘rice’, qi-panay ‘to reap rice’, paRin ‘tree; firewood’, qi-paRin ‘to gather firewood’, tamun ‘vegetables’, qi-tamun ‘to pick vegetables’, wanu ‘honey’, qi-wanu ‘to gather honey’)
Saisiyat	ki-	obtain, get (gather firewood, pick flowers, etc.), remove a tooth
Bunun (Isbukun)	ki-	remove (body hair), shave
Kanakanabu	ki-	gather (as sweet potatoes)
Saaroa	ki-	gather (as sweet potatoes)
Rukai (Tona)	ki-	harvest (millet, rice), gather (brushwood), fetch (water), earn (money, kill (animal, enemy)
Puyuma	ki-	to get, obtain (kuraw ‘fish’, ki-kuraw ‘to fish’, ləŋaw ‘sound’, ki-ləŋaw ‘to hear, listen’, rami ‘root’, ki-rami ‘get a root’, səpad ‘share (of something)’, ki-səpad ‘get a share’).
Paiwan	ki-	to get, obtain a thing (vaqu ‘millet’, ki-vaqu ‘to get or harvest millet’, paisu ‘money’, ki-paisu ‘to get or seek money’)
WMP
Karo Batak	ki-	prefix with the meaning ‘go out to collect something’ (ketaŋ ‘rattan’, ki-ketaŋ ‘go to the forest to collect rattan’, rantiŋ ‘firewood’, ki-rantiŋ ‘gather firewood’)
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	ki-	verbal prefix (gadoŋ ‘yam’, ki-gadoŋ ‘gather yams’, haraŋ ‘charcoal’, ki-haraŋ ‘gather charcoal’, tarutuŋ ‘durian’, ki-tarutuŋ ‘gather durians’)

Note: Also Thao kin- ‘to pick or gather’ (fatu ‘stone’, kin-fatu ‘to gather stones’, lhuzush ‘plum’, kin-lhuzush ‘to gather plums’, rusaw ‘fish’, kin-rusaw ‘to catch fish’). The Formoan evidence for this affix was first recognized in print by Zeitoun and Teng (2009).

30930

*ki₁ allative marker: to, toward

8786

POC *ki₁ allative marker: to, toward

OC
Nali	ki-	directional: to, toward (ki-sa ‘to here’, ki-ya ‘to there’)
Titan	ki-	directional: to, toward (ki-me ‘to or toward the speaker’)
Likum	ki-	directional: to, toward (ki-mi ‘to or toward the speaker’)
Wayan	ki	prenominal particle that marks location, direction, source, instrument or cause
Fijian	ki	to, towards, before common nouns and names of places (before proper nouns and pronouns kivei is used); before place names ki may also mean ‘at’
Tongan	ki	preposition: to, etc.
Niue	ki	preposition: to, used before proper names, pronouns and the local nouns lunga, lalo, loto, fafo, hinei, hinā, uta, etc.
Futunan	ki	to, into; toward; mark of the oblique case (introduces object and locative complements)
Samoan	ʔi-	particle denoting direction or movement in space or time; to, in the direction of; cause or reason why an action or process is carried out: because, on account of; means or instrument by which a process or action is carried out
Tuvaluan	ki	to, towards
Kapingamarangi	gi-	to, toward; by means of
Nukuoro	gi-	toward, to, in order to
Rennellese	ki	common object and locative (place to) preposition emphasizing distance: at, to, as far as, belonging to, destined for, of
Rarotongan	ki	preposition: to, as of place; ki Avarua ‘to Avarua’; raro ‘below’, ki raro ‘to below’, ruŋa ‘above’, ki ruŋa ‘to above’, etc.); at, in; into; on, to, upon; towards, at; concerning, respecting, with (the ablative of instrument); in consequence of, according to; simply transitive, connecting the verb with its object
Maori	ki	preposition: to (a place, a person, after verbs of motion, desire, etc.); into; on, to, upon; towards, at; against, at, with (indicating opposition); for, in quest of; concerning, of, respecting; in consequence of; by means of, with (of instrument); at, with, on, in; according to; in the opininion of; in the event of, if; indicating occupation, employment, etc.; simply transitive, connecting the verb with its object; to introduce an explanatory clause

Note: Also Malay kə- ‘allative: to, toward’, kə-sini ‘to(ward) here’, kə-sana ‘to(ward) there’. kə-mari ‘to(ward) the speaker’ which, however, appears to reflect *ka (cp. Rejang ka ‘to, towards’).

30931

*ki₂ oblique case marker for personal nouns

8787

PAN *ki₂ oblique case marker for personal nouns

Formosan
Saisiyat	ki	comitative marker (Li 1978:605)
Atayal (Mayrinax)	kiʔ	locative case marker for personal nouns
Siraya	ki	oblique case marker for common nouns
Rukai (Budai)	ki	oblique case marker for personal nouns
Rukai (Labuan)	ki	oblique case marker for personal nouns
Rukai (Maga)	ki	nominative case marker for personal nouns
Rukai (Tanan)	ki	oblique case marker for personal nouns
Rukai (Tona)	ki	nominal case marker for personal nouns

8788

PMP *ki₂ₐ oblique case marker for singular personal nouns

WMP
Ivatan (Isamorong)	ji	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Isneg	ki	the oblique of the personal article i
Gaddang	ki	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Isinay	ʔi	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Bikol	ki	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Ratagnon	ki	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Kuyonon	ki	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Palawano	ki	attributive/benefactive particle for personal names
Central Tagbanwa	ki	oblique case marker for personal nouns
Maranao	ki	referent personal particle
Binukid	ki	oblique case marker for singular personal nouns
Mongondow	ki	article marking the nominative case of personal names
CMP
Manggarai	hi	article preceding the name of persons (and animals in tales)
OC
Merlav	ki	instrumental: with, by (Pawley 1972:85)
Raga	gi	instrumental: with, by; reference to, concerning (Pawley 1972:85)
Sesake	ki	motion to or from (Pawley 1972:85)
Nakanamanga	ki	motion towards position: to, towards; of; marks object noun phrase (Pawley 1972:85)
Fijian	ki	preposition: to, towards, before common nouns and names of places (before proper nouns and pronouns, kivei is used)
Tongan	ki	preposition: to, toward
Niue	ki	preposition: to, used before proper names, pronouns and the local nouns
Futunan	ki	to, toward, marker of the oblique case (introduces object and locative complements)
Samoan	ʔi	particle denoting direction or movement in space or time: to, in the direction of; also occurs before the object in second construction bases (used before common bases only; for proper bases (including pronouns) cf. ʔiā and ʔiate
Tuvaluan	ki	to, towards
Kapingamarangi	gi	to, toward; by means of
Nukuoro	gi	toward, to, in order to
Rennellese	ki	object and locative (place to) preposition emphasizing distance: at, to, as far as, belonging to, destined for, of
Anuta	ki	preposition: to, toward
Rarotongan	ki	preposition: to, as of place
Maori	ki	preposition: to (of place, of a person); after verbs of motion, desire, etc.; into; on to, upon; towards, at; against, at, with (indicating opposition); for, in quest of; concerning of, respecting; in consequence of; by means of, with (of instrument); at, with, on, in; according to; in the opinion of; in the event of

Note: Also Hawaiian i ‘particle and clitic preceding substantives and marking direct and indirect objects, with additional meanings: to, at, in, on, by, because of, due to, by means of’. I assume that PAn *ki marked the oblique case only for singular personal nouns, although the availabe data from Formosan languages does not specify number.

26752

*kiab fan; to fan

3212

PWMP *kiab fan; to fan [disjunct: *kiap]

WMP
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kiyab	to fan
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	meŋ-kiap	make the fire flare up, as by fanning it with a winnowing fan
Toba Batak	hiap	produce by fanning or blowing of the wind (as a fire)

Note: Also Mongondow ko-keab ‘fan’. Zorc (1971) posits PPh *kiab ‘fan’.

30633

*kiajo outrigger boom

8133

POC *kiajo outrigger boom [doublet: *kayajo]

OC
Lou	kias	outrigger boom
Loniu	kiec	outrigger boom
Nali	kias	outrigger boom
Ahus	kiec	outrigger boom
Lindrou	kies	outrigger boom
Manam	ʔiadzo	outrigger boom
Gilbertese	kiaro	stick connecting the outrigger to a canoe
Tongan	kiato	timbers connecting the outrigger of a canoe with the canoe itself
Niue	kiato	outrigger booms on canoe
Samoan	ʔiato	outrigger boom
Tuvaluan	kiato	outrigger booms on canoe; three poles linking outrigger to hull
Nukuoro	giado	outrigger boom
Rennellese	kiato	outrigger boom
	haka-kiato	to attach booms
Anuta	kiato	thwart or outrigger boom of canoe
Rarotongan	kiato	the cross-beams of wood used to connect the ama or outrigger or lesser canoe to the main canoe
Maori	kiato	thwart of a canoe
Hawaiian	ʔiako	outrigger boom

Note: Also Futunan kiʔato ‘piece of wood on a boat that connects the outrigger’.

31873

*kiak to squawk, as a frightened chicken

10080

PMP *kiak to squawk, as a frightened chicken

WMP
Ilokano	kiák	cry of a chicken
	ag-kiák	to shriek (said of chickens when being caught, etc.)
Kankanaey	kíak	to pip; to chirp; to peep; to cheep; to pule
Kapampangan	kiyák	to cry, weep
Tiruray	kiyak	the cry of a chick for its mother; (of a chick) to cry for its mother
Iban	kiak	squawk
	eŋ-kiak	to squawk, as a hen
Karo Batak	kiak	sound of chickens
OC
Rotuman	kia	squeak; chirp

26753

*kiap to wave the hand, to fan oneself

3213

PWMP *kiap to wave the hand, to fan oneself

WMP
Kadazan Dusun	ki-kizop	fan
Melanau (Mukah)	kiap	hand fan
Karo Batak	kiap	wave with the hand, with a cloth; beckon to come

Note: Also Manobo (Western Bukidnon) kiyab ‘to fan’. Zorc (n.d.) gives PPh *kiab ‘fan’.

26754

*kiaw puling sound of a bird

3214

PAN *kiaw puling sound of a bird [doublet: *kicaw 'chatter softly, etc.']

Formosan
Amis	kiaw-kiaw	pullet, young chicken
Paiwan	kiaw	bullfrog
WMP
Ilokano	kiáw	kind of yellow and black oriole
Ifugaw	kīaw	a bird, commonly called a Moor hen: Gallinula chloropus Linn.
Aklanon	kiyaw	kind of bird
Agutaynen	kiaw	myna bird
Cebuano	kíyaw	ground bird, nearly as big as a wild chicken, named from its sound
Tombonuwo	kiau	mynah bird
Punan Busang (Bukitan)	kiaw	talking myna
Iban	kiau	mewing
OC
Seimat	kioki	kingfisher
Tolai	kik	kingfisher: Halcyon chloris or H. sancta
Roviana	kikio	a bird, the largest of the three kingfishers
Lau	kiokio	a kingfisher
'Āre'āre	kiokio	the kingfisher
Sa'a	kiokio	a kingfisher: Halcyon saurophaga
Arosi	kiokio	large kingfisher
Gilbertese	kiokio	chicken
Fijian	kiokio	small birds, chickens
Tongan	kiokio	to squeak (of chicks), chirp, twitter, warble
Niue	kiokio	cry of a bird; to chirp, to cry (as a young bird)
Samoan	ʔio	(of a chicken) to cheep
Hawaiian	ʔioʔio	cheeping, peeping

31881

*kibak to flap, clash together

10088

PWMP *kibak to flap, clash together

WMP
Kankanaey	ma-kibbák	to clap; to clash, as parts of banana stems against each other
Iban	kibak-kibak	flapping (as a coat in the wind)

Note: With root *-bak₂ ‘sound of a heavy smack’. Possibly a convergent innovation, since the gemination in the Kankanaey form is unexplained.

31907

*kibkíb nibble or gnaw at

10119

PPh *kibkíb nibble or gnaw at

WMP
Ilokano	kibkib-én	to nibble, gnaw
	kibkib-án	to nibble a part of
Ayta Abellan	kibkib	to gnaw away, to eat away little by little (as cockroaches gnawing at a sock)
Agutaynen	mag-kiʔkib	to eat or gnaw on something large while holding with the hands; to tear something apart with the teeth
Cebuano	kibkíb	wear down something bit by bit withthe front teeth (as in biting coconut meat from its shell because it is hard to scrape out); nibble, as a pig at the trunk of a papaya tree

31908

*kibul short-tailed; cropped, of the tail

10120

PPh *kibul short-tailed; cropped, of the tail

WMP
Ilokano	kíbol	short-tailed
Cebuano	kibúl	having a cropped or cut-off tail; for something else to be cropped short

31758

*kicak sound of frightened cheeping

9928

PWMP *kicak sound of frightened cheeping

WMP
Malay	kicak	twitter, chirrup, esp. of the note of the murai or magpie-robin (Copsychus saularis); to beg for alms
Tae'	kissak	onomatopoetic for frantic cheeping, as of chickens when a chicken thief is upon them

31759

*kicaq sound of chattering or loud talk

9929

PWMP *kicaq sound of chattering or loud talk

WMP
Cebuano	kísaʔ	produce a crackling, rustling sound (as rats rustling in the roof); talk loudly, too garrulously; preparation for a party, esp. cooking, as evidenced by noise
Iban	kicah kicah	chattering, gabbling

Note: Also Cebuano kásaɁ ‘produce a crackling, rustling sound; talk loudly, too garrulously’.

31760

*kicaw soothing sound of humming activity, twittering, etc.

9930

PWMP *kicaw soothing sound of humming activity, twittering, etc.

WMP
Cebuano	kísaw	make a soft, pleasant, rustling sound; hum with activity
Malay	kicaw	twitter
	ber-kicaw	to chirrup

31836

*kicek shrill cry

10032

PWMP *kicek shrill cry

WMP
Maranao	kisek	to cry, scream, shriek (as a girl)
Tiruray	kisek	(of a chick) to cry in pain or fear
Malay	kicak	to twitter, chirrup, esp. of the note of the murai, or magpie-robin (Copsychus saularis)

26755

*kiCiŋ body part

3215

PAN *kiCiŋ body part

Formosan
Paiwan	kitsiŋ	wrist joint
WMP
Cebuano	kitiŋ	tendons in the back of the heel

Note: Also Aklanon kitín ‘ankle; tendon (located near the ankle)’, Malay ketiŋ ‘back of ankle covering the urat ketiŋ (tendon Achillis)’.

31777

*kidam miss, crave, long for something

9948

PWMP *kidam miss, crave, long for something

WMP
Tiruray	kirom	miss something, long for something remembered
Tausug	pa-ŋiram	a strong and sudden craving for a particular kind of food (during the early stages of pregnancy)
Malay	kidam	morbid craving, esp. of a pregnant woman’s craving for some special food

Note: Also Malay idam ‘morbid craving’. Wilkinson (1959) lists this as a Tamil loan, but both the inherent semantics and the apparent cognates in Tiruray and Tausug make this rather unlikely.

31909

*kidas moving about rapidly or restlessly

10121

PPh *kidas moving about rapidly or restlessly

WMP
Ilokano	k<um>idas-kídas	to move about too much and disturb another person
Cebuano (SE Bohol)	kilás	making rapid and shifting movements; moving about too much, roaming about; flirting too much with the opposite sex; be or become unsteady and shifting in motion; roam about, move about too much, get to have loose morals

29861

*kiday eyebrow

6509

PWMP *kiday eyebrow [doublet: *kiray]

WMP
Ilokano	kíday	eyebrow
Cebuano	kílay	eyebrows; put on false eyebrows, line the eyebrows
	kiláy-un	having bushy eyebrows
Maranao	kiray	eyebrow
Binukid	kilay	eyebrows
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kirey	eyebrow
Tiruray	kilay	an eyebrow; to shave someone’s eyebrows to a desired shape
Tausug	kilay	eyebrow
Bare'e	kinde	raising of the eyebrows, tightening of the eyebrows in frowning
Tae'	kide	forehead
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kire	eyebrow

Note: Also Bontok gídey ‘eyebrow’. Throughout much of the Austronesian world a momentary raising of the eyebrows signals recognition or agreement. This presumably is the sense implicit in the first part of the Bare'e gloss.

32743

*kidelap glitter, flash, sparkle

11179

PWMP *kidelap glitter, flash, sparkle

WMP
Ilokano	kiláp	shine; brilliance
	k<um>iláp	to gleam, glitter, shine; be brilliant
Pangasinan	kidláp	shine; brilliance
Kapampangan	kíldap ^<M	lightning
Cebuano	kídlap	glitter, flash
Malay	kilap	flashing, flaming up

Note: Also Agutaynen koldap (< met.) ‘lightning’. With root *-lap ‘flash, sparkle’.

32744

*kidelat lightning

11180

PWMP *kidelat lightning

WMP
Tagalog	kidlát	lightning
Malay	kilat	lightning

26756

*kidem close the eyes

3216

PWMP *kidem close the eyes [disjunct: *kizem]

WMP
Ilokano	kidém	first night after the full moon; closed (eyes)
	ag-kidém	to close the eyes; be new (moon)
	k<um>id-kidém	to sleep, take a nap
Pangasinan	kirém	close the eye
Sundanese	kirɨm	keep the eyes firmly and continuously closed

Note: Probably with root *-dem₁ ‘dark’.

26757

*kidiq to tickle

3217

PAN *kidiq to tickle [doublet: *gitik, *kitik] [disjunct: *gidik, *giri, *kirik]

Formosan
Amis	kiri-kiriʔ	to tickle a person
WMP
Makassarese	kidi	to tickle
CMP
Selaru	kir-kir	(secondary reduplication) to tickle
OC
Arosi	kirikiri	tickle under the armpits
Fijian	kiri, kiri-ca	tickle under the armpits

Note: Also Malay (Jakarta) kilik ‘make (someone) ticklish, as by touching a downy chicken feather to the nostrils’, Banggai ketek, Soboyo liki ‘to tickle’.

31821

*kiDkiD to file, rasp

10012

PMP *kiDkiD to file, rasp [disjunct: *kiRkiR]

WMP
Itbayaten	i-pañ-chidchid	a kind of scraper
	chidchir-en	to scrape off the dirty part
Kankanaey	kidkid-án	to scrape
Pangasinan	kídkid	to scrape or sand something, producing fine powder or dust
Maranao	kikid	rough wood file, grater
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kidkid	to grate, as young corn or sweet potato
	kidkiz-aʔ	a grater
Tiruray	kidkid	a rasp, a file with raised points for cutting; to file with a rasp
Iban	kikir	file, grater (originally skate or shark skin used as sandpaper); (fig.) mean, stingy
Malay	kikir	file, grater
Old Javanese	kikir	file
Sasak	kikir	file; to file, as the teeth
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	na ʔiʔir	to rub, shave, shear, clean teeth

10013

POC *kikir a file, rasp

OC
Motu	iri	a saw
	iri-a	to saw
Tonga	kili	a saw, a file; to saw or file
Niue	kili	a saw, a file; to saw or file
Samoan	ʔili	a saw, a file; sawing, filing

Note: Also Ilokano kikir ‘saw (tool)’; presumably a borrowing of Malay kikir. Motu iri is assumed to reflect POc *kikir-i, with fossilization of the transitive suffix after regular loss of *k and contraction of the sequence of like vowels. The forms ir-ia and iri-a would be indistinguishable, but the latter would be favored because it assumes a disyllabic base.

31939

*kiduŋ chant or sung narrative

10155

PWMP *kiduŋ chant or sung narrative

WMP
Malay	kidoŋ	chanting; intoning; crooning; usually a rather long and monotonous chant sung to a certain measure, whether to accompany dancing, as a lullaby, as an amusement in itself, or in story-telling
Old Javanese	kiduŋ	song
Javanese	kiduŋ	epic narrative to be sung
Balinese	kiduŋ	song, melody, poem, popular tale; singing; to sing
Sasak	kiduŋ	a longer, generally old-fashioned poem that is sung
	ŋiduŋ	to sing
Banggai	kiduŋ	a men’s dance with singing

Note: Some of the forms cited here may be Malay loanwords, but this seems unlikely for Banggai kiduŋ.

31837

*kiet creaking sound; to creak

10033

PWMP *kiet creaking sound; to creak

WMP
Kankanaey	maka-kiét	to creak; to crack; to crackle, as a house shaken by wind
Malay	kiat-kiut	creaking sounds such as those made by rusty hinges

32870

*kihik to peep, squeak

11328

PWMP *kihik to peep, squeak

WMP
Javanese	kiyék-kiyék ~ kiyik-kiyik	to peep, of chicks (Pigeaud)
Mongondow	kiik	to peep, squeak, as a field mouse

Note: The reconstruction of medial *h in this form is based on: 1. the absence of forms in any early Austronesian proto-language that allow a sequence of identical vowels, and 2. the reflex of *q as -h- in forms such as *tuqu > Javanese tuhu ‘true’. The only other consonant that disappeared in both languages was PMP *h, hence its choice here.

26759

*kik a peep, squeak, giggle

3219

PMP *kik a peep, squeak, giggle [doublet: *kikik 'snigger, giggle']

WMP
Kankanaey	kik	click, tick, pip, cheep, chirp, peep, pule
Malay	kék	sound of giggling; cry of the snipe
Javanese	kik	sudden hiccough, sob
CMP
Manggarai	hik	short sudden laugh
	kik	to cheep, peep
Sika	kik	squeak of a mouse
OC
Tongan	kī	to squeak
Niue	kī	whistle in shrill manner
Samoan	ʔī	squeal, yell

31981

*kikau Bismarck scrub fowl: Megapodius eremita

10205

POC *kikau Bismarck scrub fowl: Megapodius eremita [disjunct: *kipau]

OC
Mussau	ki-kiau	large mound-building bird, Megapodius
Kove	kio	bush hen, megapode
Malango	kihau	bush hen

Note: A more extensive variant of this comparison with a number of phonologically non-corresponding forms was proposed by Clark (2011:306), who posited *k(a)iau without accounting for the medial consonant in Malango, which can only reflect *k. Both Mussau and Kove reflect *k irregularly as k or zero.

31833

*kiki₁ kingfisher, Halcyon spp.

10029

POC *kiki₁ kingfisher, Halcyon spp.

OC
Mussau	so-kiki	kingfisher
Tolai	kik	a kingfisher: Halcyon chloris or Halcyon sancta
Vitu	kiki	a bird, the Bismarck kingfisher and collared kingfisher
Iaai	jiji	a bird: Halcyon sanctus canacorum

Note: This comparison was first pointed out by Clark (2011:338). Like many bird names, it appears to be onomatopoetic.

31874

*kiki₂ small, stunted

10081

POC *kiki₂ small, stunted

OC
Bugotu	kiki	to be little
Nggela	kiki	small, with pronouns
Lengo	kiki	small
Longgu	kiki	small
Axamb	kiki	small
Maxbaxo	kiki	small
Hawaiian	ʔiʔi	small, stunted, undersized; dwarf

34025

*kiki₃ to tickle

12874

PPh *kiki₃ to tickle

WMP
Ilokano	maka-kíki	tickling
	tikí-en	to tickle
Ibaloy	kiki-en	to tickle s.o. --- esp. of tickling animals in a friendly fashion
Central Tagbanwa	kiki-an	armpit

31732

*kikik to squeak, as a mouse; to giggle

9900

PMP *kikik to squeak, as a mouse; to giggle

WMP
Kankanaey	men-kíkik	to pip; to peep; to chirp; to cheep
Ifugaw	kíkik	squeaking noise produced, e.g. by the hinges of a door when it is opened or closed
Casiguran Dumagat	kíkik	to squeak (of a small mouse)
Bikol	mag-kikík	to squeak (mice, rats)
Cebuano	kíkik	bird which makes the sound kíkik, (malevolent supernatural)
Maranao	kikik	grating sound coming from throat of witch
Tausug	k<um>ikik	to giggle
Kadazan Dusun	kikik	creak, croak, giggle
	soŋ-kikik-kikik	creaking, croaking, giggling
Kayan	kikik	a shout or yell (of pleasure)
Ngaju Dayak	kiki-kikik	laugh softly, giggle
Malagasy	kiki-kiki	giggling, a titter
Malay	kekek	giggling
	buroŋ kekek	Sumatran kingfisher: Halcyon chloris
Toba Batak	maŋ-hihik	to snicker, giggle
Nias	kiki	a small flute
Old Javanese	a-ŋikik-an	shouting with jeering laughter
Bare'e	kiki	loud laughter
	motolo-kiki	to laugh loudly, burst out laughing
CMP
Manggarai	kikik	peeping or cheeping of a baby chick
OC
Tongan	kikī	to squeak, squeal --- of young pig, small child, ungreased cart-wheel, etc.; (of a dog) to yelp; to screech

Note: Also Ifugaw kíki ‘manner of laughing, applied to women and children’, Nias iki ‘to laugh’, Wayan kī, kīkī ‘of certain birds, such as rails, plovers, swamp hens, to chirp, squeak; in game of hide-and-seek, to make a squeaky noise to let the seekers know where one is hiding’. Malagasy kiki-kiki (expected **hihi-hihi) is assumed to be an onomatopoetic retention. With root *-kik ‘shrill thoaty sound’.

31761

*kikit small, trifling

9931

PMP *kikit small, trifling

WMP
Ilokano	kikít	smallest finger, little toe; matter of extreme unimportance; least favored
	pa-kikít	fetlock; dewclaw; nonfunctional claw in dogs
	kikit-én	to do easily
Balinese	kikit	little
	ha-kikit	a little
	kikit-an	smaller, less
OC
Motu	kiki	little
Bugotu	kiki	to be little
Nggela	kiki	small, with pronouns; low, quiet, quietly, of sound
Lengo	kiki	small
Axamb	kiki	small
Niue	kiki	small; stunted

Note: Also ITNE bat-tikit ‘small’ (McFarland 1977:475).

26790

*ki(k)kik marine fish sp.

3250

PWMP *ki(k)kik marine fish sp.

WMP
Ilokano	kikkík	kind of marine fish
Malay	ikan kékék	generic for many fishes variously identified as silver-bream (Equula edentula, Cazza minuta) and horse mackerel (Mene maculata)

30989

*kikuR tail

8891

PAN *kikuR tail [doublet: *ikuR]

Formosan
Saisiyat (Taai)	kikuL	tail
Thao	kikulh	vagina, vulva
CMP
Lamboya	kiku	tail
Kambera	kiku	tail
Fordata	kikur	the tail, except for birds

26758

*kikuʔ crooked, winding

3218

PWMP *kikuʔ crooked, winding

WMP
Tboli	kigúʔ	crooked; winding, as a road
Malay	kiku	turn of the road

Note: With root *-ku(q) ‘bend, curve’.

26760

*kilab flash, sparkle

3220

PMP *kilab flash, sparkle [disjunct: *kilap]

WMP
Tagalog	kiláb	lustre, resplendence
Cebuano	kilab kilab	glitter, flash intermittently
Malay	kilap	flashing, flaming up
CMP
Manggarai	hilap	radiance (of lightning)

Note: Also Tagalog kintáb ‘gloss, glossiness’, kisláp ‘sparkle’, Maranao kirap ‘shine’, Balinese keñab ‘glitter, sparkle’, Mongondow kidap ‘glitter, shine’.

30925

*kilala to know (a person), recognize, be acquainted with; to feel, perceive

8773

PAN *kilala to know (a person), recognize, be acquainted with; to feel, perceive

Formosan
Seediq (Truku)	kila	to know
WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kilála	to be acquainted with (said to be from Tagalog)
Kapampangan	kilála	be acquainted
	maki-kilála	to recognize
	paki-kilála	to make known, introduce
Tagalog	kilalá	familiar; well-known; known to all; proverbial; known
	di-kilalá	nameless; having no name; unknown; not well known; strange; not known, seen or heard of before; unfamiliar
	ipa-kilala	to introduce; to make known; to present; to reflect; to reproduce; to show; to betray; to reveal; to signify; to make known by signs, words or actions
	ka-kilalá	an acquaintance
	mag-kilalá	to become acquainted
	mag-pa-kilala	to make known; to reveal; to show; to attest; to infer; to indicate; to imply; to denote; to be a sign of; to stamp; to show to be of a certain quality or character
	pag-ká-kilala	knowledge of a person; recognition; a being recognized
	pag-ka-kilalá	prestige; reputation; distinction; influence
	pag-ki-kilala	mutual knowledge of each other; meeting; becoming acquainted
	pag-kilala	acknowledgement; receiving, admitting, thanking, recognizing an obligation or debt, etc.; informing about the receipt of something; answering; identification; view; a way of looking at or considering a matter; opinion; recognition; recognizing
	pag-pa-pa-kilala	a making known; an expression; demonstration; a showing of emotion; introduction
	taga-pag-pa-kilala	toastmaster
	k<in>í-kilala	titular; in title or name only
	kilala-n-ín	to acknowledge; to recognize; to consider; to reckon, to judge; to identify; to recognize as being a particular person or thing
	kilalá-ŋ-kilalá	widely known; in the public eye
Hanunóo	kilála	knowing (someone), being acquainted with (someone); acquaintanceship
	ka-kilála	an acquaintance
	mag-ka-kilála	be acquainted (used mostly in the passive)
Masbatenyo	ka-kilála	an acquaintance
	mag-pa-kilála	to introduce, make someone known
	kilalá-h-on	become acquainted with, get to know; be treated, be regarded, be considered
Aklanon	kiláea	to be acquainted, get introduced
	ka-kiláea	an acquaintance, friend
	manóg-pa-kiláea	emcee, master of ceremonies; introducer
Waray-Waray	kilalá	known, recognized
	kilála	an acquaintance
Hiligaynon	kilála	acquaintance, person with whom one has a facial acquaintance
Palawan Batak	kilala	to recognize a person
Maranao	kilala	recognize, identify
Binukid	kilala	to recognize, know (someone or something)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kilala	to know someone; to recognize someone or something; an acquaintance
Mansaka	kilara	to recognize
Tiruray	gilolo-n	recognizable
Mapun	kila	to recognize something or someone; to be acquainted with someone; to identify something; to have someone identify something
	mag-pa-kila	to introduce; to make oneself recognizable; to introduce oneself
	saʔ na ta-kila-kila	no comparison; can’t imagine
Yakan	mag-kilale	to know, recognize, point out something
	kilale-h-un	to recognize
Tausug	kilā	recognition
Iban	kelala	perceive, scrutinize (e.g. a pig’s liver for omens), identify, know, recognize (a person)
Toba Batak	maŋ-hilala	to feel, sense
	paŋ-hilala-an	emotion, feeling, sentiment
Tae'	kilala-i	remember, recollect
OC
Mussau	kila	to know (people), be acquainted with
Tolai	kilala-ŋ	to know by given signs
Manam	kilala	sign; to give a sign; to recognize
	kilala-ŋ	to know to recognize (me)
Mbula	kilaala	perceive, recognize; realize, understand; be aware, know well
Tubetube	kila-kilala	recognize (usually referred to inconjunction with getting dark); sign or signal
Roviana	gila	to know, to understand; a beacon
	v<in>a-gila-gila	a sign
	gila-nia	be known, understood
Bugotu	githatha	to know, be aware of, recognize
Nggela	gila(la)	to know, be expert at
'Āre'āre	ʔirara	invoke a spirit in order to know what to do to cure a sick person
Sa'a	ilala	to divine; the charms used are apai dili, dracaena leaf, la’o shell forehead ornament, bows, spears, ähui, dancing club, paddles
Ulawa	ilala tari	to appeal to a ghost in divination
	ilalaa dani	to divine the weather
Arosi	ʔirara	to know, understand, perceive; divination, seance, ordeal; answers to questions were given by the ghosts by movements of natural objects without human intervention
Mota	gilala	to know, understand
	gila-gilala	understanding
Paamese	gilel	educate; knowledgeable; clever
Toak	-kila	to know
Faulili	ŋgilela	to know
Wayan	kila	to know, comprehend, realize, understand; be acquainted with something or someone; what is known
	kila tava	make a wrong identification, mistake one thing for another
	lei-kila-ti	be known, understood, etc.
	vī-kila-ti	know each other, be acquainted
	kila-kila-ti	try to identify or work something out, guess at something; what is guessed
	kila-kwā	knowledge, intelligence
Fijian	kila	to know; to understand; to feel, perceive
	kila-kilā	to guess; knowing, sly, cunning
	vā-kila-kilā	to fawn upon one previously despised
	vaka-tā-kilā	to show, make known, reveal

8774

PWMP *ma-kilala (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Tagalog	má-kilala	to know; to be acquainted with; to have knowledge of a person; to know someone; to be characterized; to be distinguished; to pick out or recognize someone or something from surroundings; to recognize; to know again; to discern; to know
Masbatenyo	ma-kilála	be recognized, be identified
Old Javanese	ma-kilala	to have the usufruct (right to the service) of

8775

PMP *pa-kilala (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	pa-kilála	go-between, intervener (in the case of an elopement; the term for the man who goes to the angry father of the girl, at the request of the boy’s family, to bring about a reconciliation); to act as go-between
Aklanon	pa-kiláea	to introduce, acquaint
Binukid	pa-kilala	to make (something) known; to introduce someone to someone else; to become acquainted with someone
Old Javanese	pa-kilala	to have the usufruct (right to the service) of
Tae'	pa-kilala	remember; think about; admonish
OC
Mbula	pa-kilaala	to teach, help to understand

8776

PWMP *ma-ŋilala to notice, take note of; recognize

WMP
Yakan	ŋilale	to know
Tausug	ma-ŋilā	to look at (something) in order to recognize it or see whose it is, to identify something; to claim something; to shy away from (someone, especially spoken of a baby)
Toba Batak	ma-ŋilala	to mark; remember; notice; take note of; pay attention to
Old Javanese	ma-ŋilala	to enjoy the usufruct of, have a right to the services, etc. of

8777

PWMP *ka-kilala-an (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Mapun	ka-kila-h-an	for a person to be discovered as having something that has been recognized as not belonging to him
Tausug	ka-kilā-h-an	for people to be acquainted or familiar with each other
Old Javanese	ka-kilala-n	given to rule over temporarily

8778

PWMP *k<um>ilala (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Tagalog	k<um>ilalá	to respond; to react; to act in answer
Old Javanese	k<um>ilala	to enjoy the usufruct of, have a right to the services, etc. of

8779

PWMP *kilala-an (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Maranao	kilala-ʔ-an	distinguish, recognize, acknowledge
Mapun	kila-an	to accuse someone for having something that you recognize as belonging to you or someone else
Old Javanese	kilala-n	something of which one has the use
OC
Mbula	kilala-n	sign, mark, omen

Note: Also TRUK kəla, Romblomanon kilāya ‘someone is well known; someone knows, finds out, or recognizes someone or something or that an event occurs or a state exists; someone knows about something’, Malagasy maha-lala ‘to know, to be acquainted with, to comprehend, to recognize’, faha-lala-na ‘knowledge, understanding’, Sangir maka-kirala ‘ro recognize or identify someone’, maki-kirala ‘to recognize’.

Both PMP *taqu and *kilala can be glossed by the English word ‘to know’. However, *taqu evidently referred to the skill or practical understanding that results from acquired knowledge (as in what one needs to know in order to perform a job), and it is therefore understandably associated with dexerity and the right hand in various languages. By contrast, *kilala evidently referred to instinctive or intuitive knowledge, as used in the passive recognition of people’s faces, or the acquisition of information through divination or the like. Under most circumstances the formal similarity of the material cited here to Cebuano kilála ‘ornamental shrub, the reddish leaves of which have medicinal use: Cordyline fruticosa, would be passed over in silence. However, reflexes of *kilala in the southeast Solomons refer to knowledge obtained by divination, and one of the charms used in divination is the leaves of dracaena, a close relative of the Cordyline, suggesting that this plant may have have been used for a similar purpose (knowledge through divination) in the pre-Christian Philippines, but that these associations were purged in the process of Christianization.

To explain the correspondence of the Tagalog, Toba Batak and Malagasy forms cited here Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *lala, segmenting the first syllable of both the Tagalog and Toba Batak forms. Wider comparison shows that this is not the optimal solution, since most languages reflect a trisyllable, and the development in Malagasy must be considered an unexplained irregularity. The recurrent kila forms (Mapun, Mussau, Roviana, Toak, Wayan, Fijian, optionally in Nggela) are assumed to be products of haplology rather than reflexes of a PMP doublet.

26761

*kilan handspan

3221

PWMP *kilan handspan

WMP
Berawan (Long Terawan)	kilan	hold in the hand
Maloh (Palin)	kilan	a measurement (from thumb to second finger)
Malay (Jakarta)	kilan	handspan
Old Javanese	kilan	a span (of the hand)
Mongondow	kilan	handspan

26764

*kilaŋ kind of fermented drink

3224

PWMP *kilaŋ kind of fermented drink

WMP
Ilokano	kílaŋ	kind of tree whose bark, ground into powder, is added to basi (an alcoholic beverage), etc. to produce fermentation
Malay (Sumatra)	kilaŋ	fermented drink obtained from cane-sugar or palm-sugar
Old Javanese	kilaŋ	fermented drink made from sugar-cane
Sasak	kilaŋ	kind of intoxicating drink made from sugarcane

30314

*kilap flash, sparkle

7271

PMP *kilap flash, sparkle

WMP
Ilokano	kiláp	shine, brilliance
	pak-pa-kiláp	burning glass; gathering the rays of the sun with the aid of a lens
	k<um>iláp	to gleam, glitter; shine; be brilliant
Kadazan Dusun	kihap	flash, sparkle
	k<um>ihap	to produce flashes of light, sparkle
Eastern Kadazan	tuŋ-kilap	lightning
Basap	kilap	lightning
Iban	kilap	gleaming; (of eyes) rolling
Malay	kilap	flashing; flaming up
Karo Batak	kilap	lightning
Toba Batak	hilap	lightning, flash of lightning
Javanese	kilap	lightning
Balinese	kilap	flash of lightning; ball of fire; meteor
Tontemboan	kilap	shining, glittering
Mongondow	mopo-kila-kilap	flicker, twinkle
Banggai	kilap	lightning
CMP
Manggarai	hilap	brilliance, illumination (of lightning); a transient impression (as of something rapidly passing by)

12815

PWMP *ma-kilap to flash, of lightning

WMP
Ilokano	ma-kiláp	shining, glittering, sparkling
Balinese	ma-kilap	to flash, of lightning, to lighten

Note: Also Tagalog kisláp ‘sparkle, glitter; sheen, brightness, lustre’, Aklanon gilák ‘to glitter, shine’, Palawan Batak kudlap ‘lightning’, Cebuano kiláb ‘flash by swiftly, do something in a flash’, kiláb-kiláb ‘glitter, flash intermittently’, Karo Batak ilap ‘appearance, spectre, of something that is glimpsed in an instant’, Mongondow ulindap ‘ shine, sheen, glow; reflection’, Manggarai kilep ‘pass by in an instant’. With root *-lap ‘flash, sparkle’.

31822

*kilas quick, fast

10014

PWMP *kilas quick, fast

WMP
Cebuano	kilás	characterized by making rapid and shifting movements; moving about too much, roaming about; flirting too much with the opposite sex
Maranao	kilas	rate of speed
Malay	sə-kilas mata	in the twinkling of an eye, in a wink (Echols and Shadily 1965)
Bahasa Indonesia	tər-kilas	fleeting, in an instant

26762

*kilat open the eyes wide

3222

PMP *kilat₂ open the eyes wide

WMP
Ilokano	kilát	with one or both lower eyelids stretched downward
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kilat	awakened by someone
OC
Avava	kila	look, open the eyes
	kil-kila	look, open the eyes
Tongan	ki-kila	to look with widely open eyes, to stare (a rather impolite word)
Rennellese	kiga	be pulled back, of the foreskin; be clearly seen, in plain sight; to look (said when angry)

Note: With root *-lat₁ ‘open the eyes wide’.

31676

*kilaw₁ eat raw meat

9834

PPh *kilaw₁ eat raw meat

WMP
Ilokano	maka-kil-kiláw	to crave for raw food
	k<um>iláw	to eat something raw
Pangasinan	man-kiláw	to eat raw meat or fish
Bikol	mag-kílaw	to prepare fish or meat for eating raw by marinating it in vinegar
Aklanon	kílaw	to marinate in vinegar and serve raw
	k<in>ilaw	meat or fish marinated and served raw
Agutaynen	kilaw-on	to fillet or thinly slice raw fish or meat and then mix it with vinegar, onions, and spices (it is eaten raw or just partially cooked)
Cebuano	kílaw	eat something raw or unripe; have a raw seafood eating spree
Maranao	kilaw	to eat raw
Binukid	kilaw	to eat (something) raw, unripe, uncooked
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kilew	to eat uncooked food
	k<in>ilew	fish or meat soaked in vinegar to be eaten raw
Mansaka	kilaw	to eat raw meat/fish

9835

PPh *kilaw-en to eat raw fish or meat

WMP
Ilokano	kilaw-én	to eat raw meat; raw meat dish
Bikol	kiláw-on	to prepare fish or meat for eating raw by marinating it in vinegar

31940

*kilaw₂ luminous, brilliant, full of light

10156

PWMP *kilaw₂ luminous, brilliant, full of light

WMP
Agutaynen	ma-kilaw	glaring, as of a bright light
	kilaw-an	to squint because of looking at something very bright or glaring
Malagasy	ma-ŋilu-hilu	of a deep shining black, as a button, a bead, paint, etc.
Iban	ke-kilaw	dusk, just after sunset
Malay	kilaw	luminosity; brilliancy; sheet-lightning
	kilaw-kilaw-an	flooded with light; brightness (in contrast to kilat (flashing point or line of intense light in surrounding darkness)
Toba Batak	hillo	the Batak mirror, a piece of polished metal
	h<um>illo-hillo	to glitter, flicker
Tae'	pa-kilo-kilo	to shine, glisten, flicker
Proto-South Sulawesi	*kilo	glean, shine
Makassarese	kilo	reflected light, glitter, glint

Note: Iban shows a semantic reversal common to a number of cognates shared with Malay (Blust 1980b). With root *-law ‘dazzling light’.

33748

*kilaw₃ corner of the eye

12507

PCEMP *kilaw₃ corner of the eye [doublet: *nusa, *nuso]

CMP
Manggarai	kilo mata	inner corner of the eye

12508

POC *kilo corner of the eye

OC
Tongan	kilo	glance to one side, look out of the corner of the eyes
Niue	kilo	to turn the head without moving the body

26763

*kilay wag, shake back and forth

3223

PWMP *kilay wag, shake back and forth

WMP
Kankanaey	kiláy	loose, ample, wide; to shake (as shoes, teeth, doors, etc.)
Iban	kilay	wag the head

26765

*kilep glance, glimpse

3225

PMP *kilep glance, glimpse

WMP
Iban	kilap kilap	rolling (of the eyes)
Bahasa Indonesia	se-kilap mata	momentary closure of the eyes; a moment
CMP
Manggarai	kilep	a moment; pass by rapidly
OC
Tongan	kilo	glance to one side, look out of the corner of the eyes
	kilof-i	keep glancing at

31858

*kili to turn over, to dig by turning over, as rocks

10058

POC *kili to turn over, to dig by turning over, as rocks [doublet: *keli]

OC
Label	kil ~ kel	to dig
Tolai	kil	to turn something over, esp. leaves
	kil-kil	spade, any implement used for digging
Duke of York	kili	to dig
	k<in>i-kil	spade, any implement used for digging
Mota	gil	to dig
	gili-ag	to dig deep and fix
	gil-gil	of heavy rain that digs the ground
Wayan	kili	(of something which sits on the ground), be turned over; (of a turtle) be turned on its back
	ki-kili	look for shellfish by lifting up rocks
	kili-ci	to overturn something
Fijian	kili	to turn up stones; uncover an oven; remove a thing from its place; exhume

26766

*kiliD edge

3226

PWMP *kiliD edge

WMP
Maranao	kilid	side, edge
Iban	kilir	put a fine edge on (a parang, etc.)
Malay	kilir	sharpening, whetting

26767

*kilig shudder

3227

PWMP *kilig shudder [disjunct: *kirig]

WMP
Tagalog	kilíg	shiver, shudder
Cebuano	kilíg-kilíg	shudder from cold or on experiencing something that raises goosebumps; shake the body
Malay (Java)	kilik	feel on edge, to thrill

30871

*kilik₁ to tickle

8696

PMP *kilik₁ to tickle

WMP
Malay	kilik-kilik	to tickle
CMP
Tetun	kili	to tickle
OC
Tolai	kilik	to tickle
Manam	gili	to tickle
Roviana	gili-a	to tickle gently
Lau	kili-kili-a	to tickle so as to make a person laugh

31941

*kilik₂ carried under the arm or on the hip

10157

PWMP *kilik₂ carried under the arm or on the hip

WMP
Tagalog	kílik	carried on the hip (supported by the arm)
	k<um>ílik	to carry on the hip
Malagasy	hélika	the armpit
Malay	kilek ~ kelek	armpit; carrying under the arm
	mə-ŋelek	to carry under the arm

10158

PWMP *kilik-en be carried under the arm

WMP
Tagalog	kilík-in	to carry on the hip, as a small child
Malagasy	heléh-ina	to be seized under the armpit

Note: Also Javanese kɛlɛk ‘armpit; underarm of a garment’. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *kilik ‘shoulder, carry on the shoulder’

31875

*kili-kíli armpit

10082

PPh *kili-kíli armpit

WMP
Ilokano	kili-kilí	armpit
Isneg	aŋ-ki-kíli ~ iŋ-ki-kíli	the armpit or axilla
Pangasinan	kilí-kilí	armpit
Kapampangan	kili-kíli	armpit
Tagalog	kili-kíli	armpit
Hanunóo	kili-kíli	armpit
Aklanon	kili-kíli	armpit

Note: Dempwolff (1938) compared Tagalog kili-kili, which he glossed ‘shoulder’, with Fijian kili- ‘armpit’. However, all sources that I have been able to consult for Tagalog agree in glossing kili-kili as ‘armpit’, and no source for Fijian that I have been able to consult contains kili- in the meaning given by Dempwolff.

31734

*kililíŋ ringing of a bell

9902

PPh *kililíŋ ringing of a bell [doublet: *kuliliŋ]

WMP
Ilokano	kililíŋ	a small bell
	ag-kililíŋ	to ring a small bell
Tagalog	kililíŋ	a small bell; tinkle of a small bell
	k<um>ililíŋ	to cause a small bell to tinkle

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan word. With root *-liŋ₁ ‘clear ringing sound’.

26768

*kiliŋ leaning sideways, listing (as a boat)

3228

PMP *kiliŋ leaning sideways, listing (as a boat)

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kíliŋ	to lean; be about to capsize
Tagalog	kíliŋ	inclination towards a side
Bikol	kilíŋ	tilted; to tilt, bend the head
Masbatenyo	kiliŋ-ón	to be tilted, be partially tipped over
Waray-Waray	pag-kiliŋ	the act of inclining or leaning into the other side
Cebuano	kíliŋ	lean, list to one side; defect to the opposite side
Maranao	kiliŋ	tilted; lurch
Binukid	ag-ka-kiliŋ	to lean, tilt to one side
Mansaka	kiliŋ	to make to lean; to list (as a boat)
CMP
Sika	kiliŋ	askew, at an angle, slanting

Note: Zorc (1981) gives PPh *kiliŋ ‘lean; inclination; balance’.

31733

*kilíŋ₁ ringing of a bell

9901

PPh *kilíŋ₁ ringing of a bell

WMP
Ifugaw	kilíŋ	ringing of a bell
	muŋ-kilíŋ	to ring, of a bell
Aklanon	kilíŋ-kilíŋ	to ring a bell
Tboli	kiliŋ	sound of brass anklets with little metal balls in them

Note: With root *-liŋ₁ ‘clear ringing sound’

33738

*kilíŋ₂ bamboo sp.

12494

PPh *kilíŋ₂ bamboo sp.

WMP
Ilokano	kíliŋ	spineless bamboo: Bambusa vulgaris
Agta (Eastern)	kíliŋ	bamboo (for odd jobs, not building)
Pangasinan	kilíŋ	small, thornless variety of bamboo
Tagalog	kilíŋ	a species of flexible bamboo
Hanunóo	kilíŋ	a tall, smooth bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.)

31735

*kilít to carry at the side or on the hip, pressed under the arm

9903

PPh *kilít to carry at the side or on the hip, pressed under the arm

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kilít	to clamp under the arm (as in carrying a bag of betel nuts)
Bikol	mag-kilít	to carry something (usually a child) astride the hips, with one arm giving support at the back

Note: Also Tagalog kílik ‘carried on the hip (supported by the arm)’.

31736

*kilkil gnaw meat off bones

9904

PWMP *kilkil gnaw meat off bones

WMP
Masbatenyo	mag-kilkíl	pick the bones clean, as in eating fried chicken
Malay	kikil ~ kekel	a preparation of buffalo meat
Toba Batak	maŋ-hilhil	to chew
	maŋ-hilhil-i	to chew something
Javanese	kikil	leg of lamb, calf, etc. as food

Note: Dempwolff positied *kilkil ‘eat greedily’, based only on the Toba Batak form given here and Malay kikil ‘greedy’. Wilkinson (1959) does not contain the latter word.

26769

*kiluŋ curved; bay

3229

PAN *kiluŋ curved; bay [doublet: *kilu]

Formosan
Proto-Rukai	*ma-kiLoŋo	crooked, curved
WMP
Iban	kiloŋ	crooked
	be-kiloŋ	crooked
OC
Arosi	kiru	bent, to bend

Note: Also Kadazan Dusun kiluŋ (expected **kihuŋ) ‘bay’. With root *-luŋ₁ ‘curve, bend’. Arosi kiru can be assigned equally well to *kilu.

31778

*kiluq to bend, curve; bent, curved, crooked

9949

PMP *kiluq to bend, curve; bent, curved, crooked

WMP
Ilokano	na-killó	winding, meandering; twisted; crooked; distorted; broken (talk)
Isneg	na-killó	tortuous, ebnt, curved, distorted, crooked
Bontok	na-killu	to be crooked, as a line, path or branch; to speak in an indirect fashion; to have a speech impediment
Tagalog	kilóʔ	bent; crooked; curved
Lun Dayeh	kiluʔ	bending; obscuring (thought); making crooked
Kelabit	kiluʔ	a bend, curve (as in a road)
CMP
Rotinese	kilu	bent, crooked, curved
OC
Arosi	kiru	bent, to bend
	kiru-si	to bend

9950

PMP *ma-kiluq bent, crooked, twisted

WMP
Ilokano	ma-killó	to become bent, twisted
OC
Arosi	ma-kiru	crooked

9951

PWMP *k<um>iluq to wind, turn

WMP
Tagalog	k<um>ilóʔ	to turn (as a car making a turn)
Kelabit	k<əm>iluʔ	move in a winding or meandering manner (river, road)

9952

PWMP *kiluq kiluq winding, full of curves or deviations

WMP
Isneg	killo-killo-killó	all in curves
Lun Dayeh	kiluʔ-kiluʔ	bent; obscured; crooked

Note: The gemination of the medial consonant in languages of northern Luzon is unexplained.

30532

*kima giant clam, Tridacna gigas

7811

PMP *kima giant clam, Tridacna gigas

WMP
Mapun	kima	giant clam
Yakan	kime	fluted clam, several species, fam. Tridacnidae (includes T. squamosa, Hippopus hippopus, and Hippopus porcellanus)
Tboli	kima	seashell, the horse conch (the Tboli believe that a piece of this shell placed in the middle of a rice field will give a better harvest)
Kadazan Dusun	kimo	(a kind of) big oyster
Ida'an Begak	kimo	oyster
Malagasy	hima	a kind of shell (provincial)
Malay	siput kima	the giant clam, Chaga gigas (used sometimes as a material for kris hilts); siput = ‘shell, general name for shellfish’
Simalur	kimo	giant clam, Tridacna spp.
Toba Batak	hima	large white marine shellfish from which armbands for the upper arm are made (probably < Malay)
Nias	gima	a large shellfish
Javanese	kima	kind of large shellfish
Balinese	kima	giant clam
Sasak	kima	large oyster
Sangir	kima	giant clam, Tridacna gigas; two types: kima sasapuakeŋ (this one is easy to pry up), kima maŋəlliʔ (hard to pry from the stones it attaches to); the latter are used as pig troughs; also a covert term for vulva
Tontemboan	kima	shellfish
Tonsawang	kima	clam shell used as ornament
Mongondow	kima	kind of oyster
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kima	shell
Bungku	kima	oyster
Buginese	kima	giant clam, Tridacna gigas
Palauan	kim	type of large clam
Chamorro	hima	clam – various bivalve mollusks (venus mercenaria)
CMP
Manggarai	hima	oyster
Ngadha	kima	mussel
Sika	ʔima	shell
Lamaholot	kíma	shellfish, mussel, oyster
Kambera	kíma	kind of large bivalve; also a symbol of the female genitalia
Rotinese	kíma	kind of large clam shell; occasionally this seashell half is placed in the space before a house and used … as a feeding trough
Tetun	kíma	sea shell
Erai	kíma	shellfish
Asilulu	lawa kima	kind of large clam which can be domesticated, esp. Tridacna gigas (lawa = shellfish, mollusk, snail)
Buruese	kíma	mollusk
Soboyo	kíma	shellfish
OC
Yapese	kiim	giant clam, Tridacna (< Palauan?)
Nggela	gima	species of mollusc, Tridacna gigas
Toqabaqita	ʔima	general name for giant clams, Tridacna spp.
'Āre'āre	ima	a big clam shell; a big clam shell armlet, worn by the elder men and by the rāmo (mythical ancestral warriors) to break the ribs of their victims
Sa'a	ʔime	the bear’s paw clam
Ulawa	ʔime	a large clamshell armlet, grooved, worn by elder men
Gilbertese	kima	a large shell
Mokilese	kim	clam sp., one that drifts freely on the bottom
Chuukese	siim(a)	medium-sized tridacna shell (smooth upper surface)
Puluwat	hiim, himá-n	kind of fairly large edible tridacna
Woleaian	sium(a)	giant clam
Mota	gima	the bear’s paw clam
Kapingamarangi	gima	horse hoof clam (Hippopus hippopus)
Nukuoro	gima	horse hoof clam (Hippopus hippopus)

Note: Since the glosses for both Sangir and Rotinese kima indicate use of a Tridacna halfshell as a feeding trough for pigs it is likely that this was a widespread practice in the Austronesian world. A similar association is noted in Mbula, spoken on Umboi island in the Vitiaz Strait between New Guinea and New Britain, where the unrelated form zwor is glossed ‘clam shell (large, found in the deep sea, used for feeding animals)’, with a sample sentence that indicates the use of such halfshells as pig troughs. A symbolic association with the female genitalia, presumably from the shape of the clam when slightly open, or possibly from the idea of ‘closing up’ on the penis, is also reported from Sangir and Kambera, suggesting in this case a semantic association of some antiquity. Finally, the recurrent association of this form with the meaning ‘oyster’ is puzzling, since PMP *tiRem clearly designated this referent.

30317

*kimat flash, sparkle, twinkle

7281

PPh *kimat flash, sparkle, twinkle

WMP
Ilokano	kimát	lightning
Ibaloy	kimát	lightning
Pangasinan	kimát	lightning
Bikol	kimát-kimát	flickering, twinkling; shimmering; blinking; twitching
	mag-kimát-kimát	to flicker, twinkle; shimmer; to twitch or blink (the eye)

Note: Also Mansaka kimad-kimad ‘to blink the eyes involuntarily.

33449

*kimay deformation of the body

12157

PPh *kimay deformation of the body

WMP
Bikol	kimáy	describing someone with a deformed hand or foot
	kimay-ón	to have a deformed hand or foot
Hanunóo	kímay	numbness, cramp, as in the leg
Agutaynen	ma-kimay	for a part of the body to become atrophied; small bananas with no flesh because of excessive heat
Cebuano	kímay	to have a broken, twisted, or deformed wrist
Maranao	kimay	deformation, as in a body
Binukid	ka-kimay	to have a broken, twisted, paralyzed, deformed wrist or forearm

26770

*kimet blink; flash

3230

PMP *kimet blink; flash

WMP
Bikol	kimát-kimát	flickering, twinkling
OC
Samoan	ʔemo	blink, flash
Rennellese	kemo	to flash, as lightning, a bright light or fast-moving paddles

Note: Also Fijian kimomo ‘blink the eyes in excess of light’. For the semantic connection of blinking and flashing in Austronesian languages, cf. note to *qi(n)dem.

31910

*kimit blink, wink, close the eye briefly

10122

PPh *kimit blink, wink, close the eye briefly

WMP
Yami	cimit	blink
	ci-cimit	eyelashes
Itbayaten	chimit	idea of winking; wink of the eye
	kapicha-chimi-chimit	twinkling of stars, frequent twinkling
Ibatan	kimit	to blink (of the eye), to twinkle (of a star)
Bontok	ʔi-kímit	to close one’s eyes

33900

*kimkím to pick at one’s food, show little interest in eating

12728

PPh *kimkím to pick at one’s food, show little interest in eating

WMP
Ilokano	na-kimkím	frugal in eating
Bikol	mag-kimkím	to pick at one’s food, show little interest in eating; to eat with just the tips of the fingers; to eat slowly and fastidiously

31838

*kimpal lump, lumpy

10034

PWMP *kimpal lump, lumpy

WMP
Tagalog	kimpál	lump (as of earth or sugar); clod
Toba Batak	himpal	lumpy, clotted; massive; rigid, of things that normally should be fluid

10035

PWMP *kimpal kimpal lumpy, in lumps

WMP
Tagalog	kimpál-kimpál	in lumps
Bahasa Indonesia	kimpal	compact, without spaces inside
Toba Batak	mar-himpal-himpal	to be lumpy

26771

*kimpaŋ lame, walk with a limp

3231

PWMP *kimpaŋ lame, walk with a limp [doublet: *timpaŋ]

WMP
Cebuano	kimpáŋ	walk with a limp as if with one leg shorter than the other
Mansaka	kimpaN	unable to walk normally
Makassarese	kémpaŋ	lame

26772

*kimut kimut twitch, jerk; keep moving the lips

3232

PWMP *kimut kimut twitch, jerk; keep moving the lips [doublet: *ki(ŋ)buC, *ki(ŋ)but]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kimot-kimot	move continually in and out (as to keep moving the lips in and out in a nervous fashion, or of the wriggling of maggots in meat)
Bikol	kimót-kimót	to move the lips (as when reading to someone, or praying
Tombonuwo	kimut kimut	to mumble
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kimut	closing and moving the mouth tightly with lips pointed together
Iban	kimut kimut	twitching, jerking (as lips, hips)

Note: Also Cebuano kimug ‘twitch involuntarily’, Kayan kimet ‘a twitch’, kimet kimet ‘to twitch; restive, fidgeting’.

31820

*kindaŋ-kindaŋ rock or hover back and forth

10011

PWMP *kindaŋ-kindaŋ rock or hover back and forth

WMP
Cebuano	kindáŋ-kindáŋ	wobbling, rocking from side to side; to rock from side to side
Iban	ŋindaŋ	to soar, hover over (as a hawk hovering over fowls before attacking)
	kinda-kindaŋ	raised to strike (as a sword that is raised for a blow)

Note: Also Cebuano kíndaɁ-kíndaɁ ‘move or wobble rapidly back and forth or side to side’, Iban kindaɁ ‘soar, hover over’.

26773

*kindat raise the eyebrows as a signal to another person; to furrow the brows (?)

3233

PWMP *kindat raise the eyebrows as a signal to another person; to furrow the brows (?)

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kidat	to lift the eyebrows (a signal of affirmation to another person)
Pangasinan	kindát	to wink
Tagalog	kindát	wink (of the eye)
	k<um>indát	to wink the eye
	kindat-án	to wink at someone
Tausug	k<um>indat	to raise an eyebrow, wink at someone
Sasak	kindat	furrow the eyebrows, frown

Note: Also Cebuano kidhát ‘signal with the eyes or eyebrows’.

32745

*kinelaw dazzling light

11181

PWMP *kinelaw dazzling light

WMP
Cebuano	kínlaw	gleaming brightly, shining with a steady reflected light
Malay	kilaw	luminosity; brilliancy; sheet-lightning; in contrast to kilat (flashing point or line of intense light in surrounding darkness)

Note: With root *-law ‘dazzling light’.

31799

*kiniŋ eyebrow

9985

PWMP *kiniŋ eyebrow [doublet: *kəniŋ]

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kiniŋ	eye
Bantik	kiniŋ	eyebrow
Toratán	kiniŋ	eyebrow

26774

*kinit pinch, nip, pluck

3234

PMP *kinit pinch, nip, pluck [doublet: *kunut pinch]

WMP
Ilokano	kinnít	pull with the teeth
Bontok	kinít	to peel off, as fat from meat or the scab from a sore
OC
Tolai	kinit	pick or pull out by means of the fingernails, to pinch or nip
Motu	kini-a	nip with the fingernails, pluck flowers
Eddystone/Mandegusu	kiniti	to pinch
Nggela	gini	to pinch, pinch off, nip
	gini-ti	to pinch, pinch off, nip
Gilbertese	kini-ka	to pinch, to take between or with the fingernails
Fijian	kini, kini-ta	pinch with the nails
Samoan	ʔini	pinch, nip

Note: Also Bugotu kiñibi ‘pinch’. If connected, this form suggests an etymon *kiñit.

31911

*kiñam to try, taste

10123

PWMP *kiñam to try, taste

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kénam	to taste, to sample by tasting
Maranao	kinam	discernible taste
Yakan	kinam	to try or try out something; to taste food (in order to try out if it is good or done, etc.)
Kadazan Dusun	kinam	to try, test
Sasak	kiñam	to heal, be healthy again

Note: With root *-ñam ‘savory, tasty’.

31737

*kiñaŋ quartz crystal (?)

9905

PWMP *kiñaŋ quartz crystal (?)

WMP
Tagalog	kináŋ	shine; shininess; lustre
	ma-kináŋ	brilliant; luminous; shining (by its own light); lustrous, having lustre
	k<um>ináŋ	to glitter; to sparkle
Iban	batu kiñaŋ	translucent stone, crystal
Malay	kiñaŋ	rock-crystal

26795

*kiŋ ringing sound

3255

PMP *kiŋ ringing sound

WMP
Kankanaey	kiŋ	ring, tinkle, jingle; rattle, warble; trill (alarmclock, the ear, warblers, etc.)
CMP
Manggarai	kiŋ	tinkling, ringing

31859

*kiŋeR to hear

10059

PAN *kiŋeR to hear

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	ki<a>ŋeR	to listen to
	kiŋR-i	listen!
	kuR-kiŋR-an	to be audible
WMP
Tagalog	kiníg	what is or was heard
	ma-kiníg	to listen
	pa-kiŋg-án	to hear; to listen to
Sungai Seguliud	a-kiŋog	to hear
Ida'an Begak	kiŋog	to hear (Lobel 2016)
Tingalan (West)	aŋ-kinog	to hear

Note: Tagalog kiníg and Tingalan (West) aŋ-kinog are assumed to show velar dissimilation of the same kind found in Bikol nagáɁ (expected **ŋagáɁ) < *ŋaRaq ‘wild duck’. With root *-ŋeR ‘hear; noise’.

26788

*kiŋkiŋ₁ ringing sound

3248

PAN *kiŋkiŋ₁ ringing sound

Formosan
Amis	kiŋkiŋ	bells
	mi-kiŋkiŋ	to ring a bell or bells
Paiwan	k-al-iŋkiŋ	have a ringing sound
WMP
Isneg	kiŋkéŋ	a bell
Kankanaey	kiŋkiŋ-en	ring, clang, clank
Malay	kèŋkèŋ	the whining of dogs
CMP
Manggarai	kiŋ-kiŋ	sound of light ringing; ring, jingle

26789

*kiŋkiŋ₂ hop on one leg

3249

PWMP *kiŋkiŋ₂ hop on one leg

WMP
Ilokano	kiŋkíŋ	hop, jump, spring on one foot; play at hopscotch
Kankanaey	na-kiŋkiŋ	limping, halt, hobbling; lame of one foot
Hanunóo	kiŋkiŋ	hopping on one leg
Aklanon	kíŋkiŋ	hop (on one foot)
Cebuano	ta-kiŋkiŋ	hop on one leg
Maranao	kiŋkiŋ	lift a foot and hop
Kadazan Dusun	kiŋkiŋ	hopping
Malay	kéŋkéŋ	raising a foot or paw off the ground

Note: Also Malay tiŋtiŋ ‘to hop (with one foot raised and held in front)’ Malay (Pahang) ke-tiŋtiŋ same gloss (both metatheses of *ta-kiŋkiŋ (?)). Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *-kiŋkiŋ ‘hop, skip’.

30469

*kiŋkiŋ₃ little finger, pinky

7663

PMP *kiŋkiŋ₃ little finger, pinky

WMP
Mansaka	kiŋkiŋ	little finger
Tausug	kiŋkiŋ	little finger
CMP
Bimanese	kiŋgi	little finger
Rembong	kiŋgi-koeʔ	little finger

7664

PWMP *k<al>iŋkiŋ little finger

WMP
Kapampangan	k<al>iŋkíŋ-an	little finger
Tagalog	k<ál>iŋkiŋ-an	little finger, little toe
Aklanon	k<al>íŋkiŋ	little finger, pinky
Malay	k<el>iŋkiŋ	little finger
Minangkabau	k<al>iŋkiŋ	little finger

Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat kaliŋtíŋan ‘little finger’, Ifugaw (Batad) ekʔekeŋŋan ‘the little finger of a person, monkey’, Mansaka paŋariŋkiŋ, Maranao tiŋentiŋ, Binukid aŋiŋiŋkiŋ ‘little finger, little toe’, Malay keléŋkéŋ, Balaesang kalinjiŋ, Bare'e kancili ‘little finger’, Makassarese k<an>iŋkiŋ ‘little finger, little toe’, Komodo kindi ‘little finger’. It is evident from the number of phonologically similar, but non-corresponding polysyllables meaning ‘little finger, little toe’, that there is some type of sound-symbolic play operating in the creation of these words. However, it is difficult to see exactly what is operative, as it does not appear to be sound-size symbolism, and the affixes <al> and –an have no clear morphological function when attached to this morpheme.

26775

*kipak flap the wings

3235

PWMP *kipak flap the wings

WMP
Kankanaey	kipák	clap, clash
Ngaju Dayak	kipak	flapping of wings (of a bird)
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	kèpak	sound of wings clapping

Note: With root *-pak₁ ‘slap, clap’.

31982

*kipau Bismarck scrub fowl: Megapodius eremita

10206

POC *kipau Bismarck scrub fowl: Megapodius eremita

OC
Mussau	ki-kiau	large mound-building bird, Megapodius
Kove	kio	bush hen, megapode
Halia	kihau	bush fowl

Note: Also Mbula tiau ‘wild chicken, bush fowl (brown, black, size of a chicken)’. A more extensive variant of this comparison with a number of phonologically non-corresponding forms was proposed by Clark (2011:306), who gives Mangap (= Mbula) tiau as kiau, and posits *k(a)iau without accounting for the medial consonant in Halia. Kove reflects *p irregularly as p or zero.

31839

*kipay wave back and forth

10036

PWMP *kipay wave back and forth [doublet: *kapay]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kepay-kipay	to flap the fins, of fish
Ngaju Dayak	kipay	waving, giving a sign with the hand
Bahasa Indonesia	kipay	to wag the tail, of a dog

26791

*ki(m)pes deflate, shrink

3251

PMP *ki(m)pes deflate, shrink [doublet: *ke(m)pis]

WMP
Maranao	kipes	shrink
CMP
Manggarai	kimpes	shrunken

31762

*kipit narrow; pinch between tongs, etc.

9932

PAN *kipit narrow; pinch between tongs, etc.

Formosan
Kavalan	qipit	to hold with clippers , under one’s armpit or between one’s thighs
WMP
Gaddang	ma-kippit	narrow (McFarland 1977:524)
Ibaloy	me-kipit	to be narrow (especially of passageways)
Aklanon	kímpit	tweezers, tongs; clothespin; to pinch together; to press or hold between two things
Hiligaynon	kímpit	pincer, prong; hairclip
	mag-kímpit	to pick with a pincer, to pin hair together
Cebuano	kimpít	squeeze something between two long things to hold it; tongs, chopsticks
	kípit	to hold or take hold of something between two fingers, or with two sticks, tongs or the like
Maranao	kimpit	hold vise-like, as with pliers or tongs
Mansaka	kimpit	pincers; chopsticks; pliers
	kimpit-ay	a clip
Malagasy	ma-hífitra	narrow (of planks, calico, a road, etc.)
Banjarese	kipit	narrow
CMP
Soboyo	kipi	to hold tight

10067

POC *kibit narrow

OC
Motu	udu kibi	narrow-mouthed; of a water pot with narrow mouth; of a small mouth due to a sore

Note: With root *-pit ‘press, squeeze together; narrow’.

31823

*kiput narrow

10015

PMP *kiput narrow

WMP
Ilokano	na-kípot	tight fitting
Tagalog	kípot	narrowness; the narrows; the narrow part of a river, valley or pass; strait; a narrow channel connecting two large bodies of water
	ma-kípot	narrow; close; with little space
	k<um>ípot	to narrow; to decrease in width; to become narrow
	kipút-an	to take in; to make smaller or narrower
Bikol	kípot	constricted
	mag-kípot	to sew two ends together over a hole
	pa-kipót-on	to close up a hole; to constrict
Aklanon	kípot	to close, shut; tighten (up)
	kipót	tight, not loose
Cebuano	kíput	for an opening to become closed or something exposed to get to be covered or hidden; cause it to do so
Tausug	kiput	narrowness (in size or space)
Samihim	kiput	narrow
Mongondow	mo-kiput	narrow, of an opening
CMP
Rembong	kiput	closed (of a hole)
Kambera	kipu	narrow, tight

26777

*kiras scar

3237

PMP *kiras scar

WMP
Ifugaw	kīlah	be scarred, of the forehead, scalp
OC
Roviana	kira	scar
Nggela	kira	scar
Samoan	mā-ʔila	scar

Note: Also Lau kida ‘scar of wound or sore’.

29860

*kiray eyebrow

6508

PWMP *kiray eyebrow [doublet: *kiday]

WMP
Itbayaten	chiray	eyebrow
Atta (Pamplona)	kiray	eyebrow
Agta (Central Cagayan)	kilay-an	raise one’s eyebrows; wink
Itawis	kíray	eyebrow
Tagalog	kílay	eyebrow
Bikol	kíray	eyebrow
Hiligaynon	kílay	eyebrow
Cebuano	kílay	eyebrow
Maranao	kiray	eyebrow
Subanen/Subanun	kiloy	eyebrow
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kirey	eyebrow
Tiruray	kilay	eyebrow
Mapun	kilay	eyebrow
Yakan	kiley	eyebrow
Tausug	kilay	eyebrow
Malay (Brunei)	kiray	eyebrow
Kiput	kiraay	eyebrow
Balaesang	bulu kire	eyebrow
Bare'e	kire	eyebrow
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kire	eyebrow
Muna	kire	eyebrow

Note: Also Subanun (Sindangan) gilay ‘eyebrow’.

31300

*kirig shudder

9364

PWMP *kirig shudder [disjunct: *kilig]

WMP
Tagalog	kilíg	shiver, shudder
Cebuano	kilíg-kilíg	shudder from cold or on experiencing something that raises goosebumps; shake the body
Old Javanese	kirig	shake oneself (like a dog after a

26778

*kirik to tickle

3238

PMP *kirik to tickle [doublet: *gitik, *kitik] [disjunct: *gidik, *giri, *kidi]

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	ka-kirik	itchy
Tae'	kiriʔ	show a finger to a small child to indicate intent to tickle it and make it laugh
OC
Arosi	kirikiri	tickle under the armpits
Fijian	kiri, kiri-ca	tickle under the armpits

Note: Also Malay (Jakarta) kilik ‘make (someone) ticklish, as by touching a downy chicken feather to the nostrils’, Banggai ketek, Soboyo liki ‘to tickle’.

31983

*kiRa a bird, tern sp.

10207

POC *kiRa a bird, tern sp.

OC
Halia	kira	Little tern: Sterna albifrons
Petats	kira	small white sea bird which dives for small fish
Gilbertese	kia-kia	a bird, the Black-naped tern
Puluwat	kiye-kiy	Fairy tern: Gygas alba (often fly gracefully in pairs)
Woleaian	giya-giya	White or Fairy tern
Rapanui	kia-kia	white sea bird

Note: A longer version of this comparison was proposed by Clark (2011:366-367).

31984

*kiRak parrot sp., possibly Eclectus parrot

10208

POC *kiRak parrot sp., possibly Eclectus parrot

OC
Gapapaiwa	kira-kiraka	parrot
Wedau	kira-kirako	parrot
Banoni	kire	red Eclectus parrot
Babatana	kira	lorikeet
Malango	kira	Eclectus parrot: Eclectus roratus
Lau	kila ~ kila-kila	green parrot
Sa'a	kile-kile	onomatopoetic, a small light green parrot that figures in a story of Muumuu (ogres from the hill country of southeast Guadalcanal); the parrot’s cry
Arosi	kira-kira	a green parrot

Note: A more extensive variant of this comparison was proposed by Clark (2011:323).

26776

*kiRam axe or adze

3236

PMP *kiRam axe or adze

WMP
Palauan	kisəm	clamshell axe
Chamorro	higam	traditional adze of clam shell or stone
OC
Vitu	kira	stone axe (now also used for iron-headed axes)
Manam	kira	stone axe, axe blade
Gedaged	iz	an adze; the stone was bound in a foŋ (two pieces of wood hollowed out on the inside to take a stone axe) so it could be turned as desired
Numbami	ilama	adze of iron
Wedau	irama	stone axe
Bunama	ʔila	axe
Motu	ira	hatchet; adze
Kilivila	kema	axe
	kema dakuna	stone axe
Molima	ilama	stone axe
Tubetube	kilam	axe
Sudest	ghiya	stone axe
Nggela	gila	stone adze
Kwaio	kila-kila	(steel) tomahawk
Toqabaqita	kii-kila	traditionally: axe with a very long handle, used in fights; today can be used to refer to any kind of axe
'Āre'āre	ire	a stone axe
Sa'a	ile	a stone axe
Efate (South)	kiram	axe
Wayan	kia	axe or adze; formerly used of stone adzes, now of steel axes or adzes
	kia-kavo	war-club
	kia vatu	stone axe or adze; considered valuable goods before the introduction of steel
Fijian	kia-kavo	the common war-club, with head bent somewhat like a capital J and notched on the other side

Note: Also Sa'a kile-kile ‘a long-handled iron tomahawk used for fighting’. We know from the archaeological record that both clam shell and stone were used to make chopping or wood-carving blades, and it is therefore a reasonable inference that PMP *kiRam could be made either of clam shell (as attested in the Palauan gloss), or of stone (as attested in most reflexes in Melanesia).

30559

*kiRay pandanus sp., used in making mats

7915

PMP *kiRay pandanus sp., used in making mats

WMP
Tboli	kilay	pandanus sp.
CMP
Kambera	iri	kind of thornless pandanus; the leaves are used for finely plaited mats

7916

POC *kiRe a pandanus, Pandanus odoratissimus; a mat made from the leaves of this plant

OC
Takuu	kie	pandanus species used for conducting ritual and decorative ornaments
'Āre'āre	ire	a pandanus, its leaves used to make armlets
Sa'a	ile	a pandanus with slender leaves, used to make pwaso armlets
Arosi (Eastern)	kire ~ gire	a pandanus, Pandanus odoratissimus
Proto-Micronesian	*kie	plaited mat
Gilbertese	kie	a mat of pandanus leaves used for sleeping
Pohnpeian	kie	a possessive classifer for things to sleep on
Chuukese	kiya-	plaited mat, sleeping mat
Puluwat	kiy-	possessive classifer for pandanus mats
	kiye-ki	pandanus mat; to use such
	kiye-y	to lie on, as a mat
Mota	gire	Pandanus odoratissimus, female tree
Tongan	kie	kind of pandanus; very fine mat made from the smooth side of kie leaves

7917

POC *kiRe-kiRe pandanus sp.

OC
Tawala	kile-kile	pandanus type
Molima	kile-kile	a small pandanus
Proto-Micronesian	*kiekie	plaited mat
Woleaian	giyegiy	pandanus leaves used for mats; mat
Rotuman	kia-kia	kind of pandanus whose leaves are used for making ordinary mats
Samoan	ʔie-ʔie	liana (Freycinetia sp.) used for making fish-traps
Maori	kie-kie	Freycinetia banksii, a climbing plant
Hawaiian	ʔie-ʔie	an endemic woody branching climber (Freycinetia arborea)

Note: First cited by Ross (2008:329), who notes Blit Manobo and Tboli forms in conjunction with the more extensive Oceanic evidence. Tboli kilay ‘pandanus sp.’ is reported in Madulid (2001), but not in the extensive dictionary of Awed, Underwood, and van Wynen (2004), and Blit Manobo is virtually unknown apart from very limited data in Llamzon (1971), Molony and Tuan (1976), and Madulid (2001). Evidence from CMP languages has not previously been noted.

29907

(Formosan only)

*kiRim seek, search, look for

6575

PAN *kiRim seek, search, look for

Formosan
Kavalan	ki-kirim-an	keep searching, looking for
Saisiyat (Taai)	kiLim	seek, search for
Amis	kilim	look for, search for
Thao	kilhim	search, look for
Bunun	kilim	look for, search for
	ki-kilim	keep looking for something
Tsou	riʔm-a ^<M	seek
Saaroa	u-a-ki-kirimi	seek
Paiwan	kim	search for

6576

PAN *ma-kiRim found?

Formosan
Amis	ma-kilim	found
Thao	ma-kilhim	will look for, will search for

6577

PAN *k<um>iRim to seek, search, look for

Formosan
Kavalan	k<m>irim	seek, search, look for
Saisiyat (Taai)	k<om>iLim	seek
Thao	k<m>ilhim	search for someone or something
Kanakanabu	k<um>irími	seek
Paiwan	k<m>im	to search for

6578

PAN *kiRim-en be looked for

Formosan
Amis	kilim-en	look for (it)
Thao	kilhim-in	be looked for by someone
Bunun	kilim-un	search, look for

Note: This comparison was first described by Tsuchida (1976:290).

30011

*kiRkiR rasp, file

6705

PAN *kiRkiR rasp, file [doublet: *kikik] [disjunct: *kiDkiD]

Formosan
Thao	ka-kilhkilh	rasp, file for filing wood
	ma-kilhkilh	will file
WMP
Ilokano	kirkír	scrape, scrub; carpenter’s file
Ifugaw	kílkil ~ kikil	file, an instrument
Ifugaw (Batad)	kelkel	a file rasp; a ridged tool for smoothing surfaces of metal or wood
Pangasinan	kílkil	file (tool)
Tausug	kigkig	sandpaper, anything (such as shark skin) used to polish or smooth a rough surface
	mag-kigkig	to smooth or polish a rough surface (esp. wood)
Kadazan Dusun	kiŋkig	file, fish skin (Goossens)
Narum	hikair	rasp, file
Malay	kikir	file; grater; (fig.) miserly; originally a rough skate-skin grater used for sandpapering and smoothing
Balinese	kihkih	rasp, grate, file
CMP
Yamdena	kikir	file with ray or shark skin
Kei	ir	wood file, made from a piece of wood over which a piece of ray or shark skin is stretched

Note: Also Agutaynen kilkig ‘file, as for sharpening’, Motu iri ‘a saw’, iri-a ‘to saw’.

26779

*kiRus scrape

3239

PAN *kiRus scrape [doublet: *kaRus]

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	k-em-a-kiRus, kiRus-i	carve out, as a spoon; scrape out, as rice in the bottom of the pot in a digging motion; to clean out, as a ditch or water-pool
WMP
Ilokano	kirús	scraper; anything that can be used to clean a pot, pan, etc. to which some extraneous matter is sticking. The kirús is smaller than the kárus
Tontemboan	kuris ^<M	shave (beard), scrape off (salt, a plank, lead pencil), grate, scrape out

Note: Also Ngaju Dayak kiris ‘scratching or scraping sound, but softer than karus.

26792

*ki(n)sap blink, wink, flicker, flash

3252

PWMP *ki(n)sap blink, wink, flicker, flash [doublet: *kizap]

WMP
Agta (Eastern)	kisap	to blink
Tagalog	kisáp	blink, wink
Sasak	kisap	lightning
Mori	kinsa	flicker, blink

Note: Also Kayan kusap mata ‘eyelash’. The meanings ‘flicker, flash’ and ‘blink’ are associated with cognate morphemes in a number of Austronesian languages, and sometimes co-occur in the same language, as with Bintulu kejep kejep ‘to flicker, of a fire’, k-em-ejep ‘to blink’, Bahasa Indonesia kilap ‘flash’, se-kilap mata ‘momentary closure of the eye’. The common link evidently is that of a brief visual image interrupted either at the source or at the receiver.

31912

*kisaw sound of swishing, as of hand passing through water

10124

PPh *kisaw sound of swishing, as of hand passing through water

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kisáw-kisáw	to swish, to ruffle (water with the hands or feet)
Tagalog	kísaw	ruffling of water surface due to some movement below
Aklanon	kisáw-kisáw	to flicker, have a tic (said of one’s eyes)
Cebuano	mu-kísaw	to make a soft, pleasant rustling sound (as a forest when the wind blows through it); disturb the water; hum with activity

31708

*kisay tear a leaf or cloth into strips

9874

PPh *kisay tear a leaf or cloth into strips

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kisay-kisay	to break, to tear (leaves or cloth into strips)
Mansaka	kisay	to tear apart (as a banana leaf)

31779

*kiseg twist spasmodically, wriggle

9953

PMP *kiseg twist spasmodically, wriggle

WMP
Tagalog	kisíg	spasmodic twitching of a muscle or muscles; convulsive spasm
	k<um>isíg	to twitch, have spasms

9954

POC *kisog twist spasmodically, wriggle

OC
Arosi	kito	restless, nervous
	kito-kito	to twist, wriggle (as an eel’s tail cut off)

Note: Also Cebuano kisi-kísi ‘wriggle around as if to get free (as a fish in someone’s hands); for a child to stamp its feet, jump around or just insist on fulfilling its desire’. Possibly a chance resemblance.

31913

*kis(e)láp sparkle, glitter

10125

PPh *kis(e)láp sparkle, glitter

WMP
Ilokano	kisláp	glimpse, glance
Tagalog	kisláp	sparkle; glitter; flash; spark; twinkle
Cebuano	kisláp	gleam, sparkle (as the gleam in someone’s eye or the sparkling of a diamond)

Note: With root *-lap ‘flash, sparkle’.

30504

*kisi pick out with the fingers

7733

PCMP *kisi pick out with the fingers

CMP
Ngadha	kisi	peel or pare off, strip or draw off with the fingers
Fordata	kisi	pinch, hold between thumb and forefinger
Buruese	kisi-h	remove (as eye-matter with the finger), poke out, pry out, de-bone

31677

*kiskis to shave, scrape off

9836

PAN *kiskis to shave, scrape off [doublet: *kiSkiS]

Formosan
Amis	kickic	to cut flesh off the bones
WMP
Itbayaten	chischis	bald haircut
Ilokano	ag-kiskís	to shave; scrape
Bontok	ʔi-kiskís	to scrape the outer sheath from reeds
Casiguran Dumagat	késkes	scales of fish; to scale a fish
Pangasinan	man-kiskís	to shave (oneself)
	ma-ŋiskís	to shave (another person)
Ayta Abellan	kihkih	to scrape something, as soot from a roasted sweet potato
Bikol	kiskís	fish scales
	mag-kiskís	to scale a fish
Maranao	kikis	to scrape, shave
Binukid	kiskis	to shave off (hair)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kiskis	a razor; to shave
Mansaka	kiskis	to scrape (as rattan)
Tiruray	gisgis	to scratch or scrape something
Tausug	kiskis	to brush one’s teeth
Kadazan Dusun	kikis	to scrape
Lun Dayeh	kiki-i	the shaving off of something
Kelabit	kiki	hair that is shaved off
	ŋiki	to shave off hair
Ngaju Dayak	kikis	scraped, shaved
Malagasy	híhi	scraped, as the flesh from bones, or as the skin scrapted from roots, etc.; erased
Iban	kikis	scrape, scrape off (as old paint from wood)
Malay	kikis	scraping down (asperities off wood, barnacles off a ship’s bottom, fleecing; not of fine work like sandpapering, but of scratching a sore or holding a knife at right angles to a wooden surface and scraping
	kikis-kan	to clean by scraping
Toba Batak	maŋ-hishis	scrape off with a knife; scratch or scrape off a surface
Balinese	ŋiskis	to weed with a hoe
Sasak	kiskis	a hoe; to hoe
CMP
Tetun (Dili)	kiki	to scale fish

9837

PWMP *kiskis-an to scrape off

WMP
Itbayaten	kiskis-an	to remove scales by rubbing
Ilokano	kiskis-án	to shave someone; barbershop
Kankanaey	kiskis-an	to shave; to scrape
Kadazan Dusun	kikis-an	to be scraped

9838

PWMP *kiskis-en to scrape off

WMP
Ilokano	kiskis-én	to shave off
Kadazan Dusun	kikis-on	to be scraped

10065

PPh *kiskis-an to cut the hair short

WMP
Itbayaten	chischis-an	to make into bald haircut
Isneg	kiskís-an	to poll, to cut short the hair of

Note: Also Ngaju Dayak ikis ‘scraped, shaved’.

26780

*kiSkiS scrape off

3240

PAN *kiSkiS scrape off [doublet: *kiskis]

Formosan
Kavalan	kiskis	to shave
Amis	kiskis	scrape off a surface, strip
Thao	kishkish	to shave, cut (hair)
	ka-kishkish	razor, scraper
Puyuma	k<əm>iskis	to scrape off something hard, such as bark
Paiwan	k<ar>iskis	to make noise by scraping fingernail on blackboard
WMP
Cebuano	kikhi (< *kihki)	scrape off something that cakes onto something
CMP
Yamdena	kiki	scour, scrub off

30794

*kita to see

8527

PAN *kita₂ to see

Formosan
Kavalan	qita	to see, to be able to see
Atayal	kita	to see, look upon, see in a dream; a mirror
	p-kita	look at one another
Pazeh	kita	Look! (imperative)
	maa-kita	to look at each other
	maaka-kita	to meet for the first time
	maxa-kita	to see each other
	mi-kita	to see, to look at
	kita-an	to be seen
WMP
Yami	cita	to see, look at
	cita-i	look! (imperative)
	cita-cita-en	constantly see
	cita-n	see, look
Itbayaten	ka-chita-an	to discover
Ilokano	kíta	kind, class; appearance; species; shape; aspect; look
	ag-kíta	to see each other; meet by chance
	pag-kíta	eyes, organs of sight
Agta (Central Cagayan)	me-ʔita	to see
Isneg	kíta	kind, species
	mag-kíta	to look, to see
Tagalog	kíta	seen; can be seen; visible; obvious; easily seen or understood
	k<in>-í-kitá	phantasmagoria; phantom; apparition
Inati	kiteʔ	to see
Kalamian Tagbanwa	itaʔ	to see
Mamanwa	kita	to see
Manobo (Tigwa)	kita	to see
Manobo (Ilianen)	kita	to see
Kalagan	kitaʔ	to see
Mapun	ŋita	to see something; to be able to see something
Yakan	mag-kite	to see something
Kadazan Dusun	kito	see, find, observe, discover, show
Paku	kite	to see
Malagasy	híta	seen, found, perceived
	híta máso	clearly seen, seeing by oneself, undoubted, undisputed (máso = ‘the eye’)
Javanese	was-kiṭa	having intelligence and reasoning power for which one is held in high esteem; able to predict the future by extrasensory perception
Balaesang	meki-kita	be seen
Ampibabo-Lauje	ʔito	to see
Banggai	moŋ-kita	to see
	ba-kita-an	look at oneself in the mirror
	moŋ-kita-an	mirror
	moŋ-kita-kon	to show, display
	poo-kita	see one another
Bare'e	maŋ-kita	see something, have something in view
	mampa-pa-kita	to show, display
Tae'	kita	to see
	si-kita	see one another
	uŋ-kita isin-na	have prophetic foresight, see into the future (lit. ‘see its teeth’)
	ka-kita-nan	visible
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kita	to see
Mori Bawah	moŋ-kita	to see
Padoe	mo-ŋito	to see
CMP
Sika	gita ~ ita	to see
Anakalangu	ita	to see
Buruese	kita-h	to see
	kit-kita-h	seeing
	kita-k	be convinced
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	na-ʔit	to see
OC
Suau	ʔita	to see
Bunama	ʔita	to see
Hula	ɣia	to see
Motu	ita	to see, to look
	ita-ia	to look at
	ita-ita-na	resemblance, appearance
Pokau	ika	to see
Dobuan	ʔita	to see
Saliba	kita	to see
Luangiua	ʔike	to see
Sikaiana	kite ^<A	to see
Tolomako	kile-a	to see
Morouas	ite-a	to see
Tangoa	xite	to see
Raga	xita	to see
Apma	kita	to see
	-kita	to see
Tongan	kite	(of distant objects) to appear, to be in sight or come into sight
	faka-kite	to loom ahead, to appear to be approaching (in time, not space)
	kite-ʔi	to ‘dream’, suspect, have an idea (that it might be so)
Niue	kite ~ kise	to see, to know
	faka-kite ~ faka-kise	to make known, show
	fe-kite-aki	to see each other
	mata-kite	keen-eyed; to be on the alert
	kite-kite ~ kise-kise	to look at, examine
Futunan	kite	appear in the distance; appearance
Samoan	ʔi-ʔite	foretell, tell beforehand; have a hunch, have a premonition
	faʔa-ʔite-ʔite	get, have a presentiment, premonition of something
	ʔite-a	be in sight
Tuvaluan	kite	seer; one who can foretell fishing prospects from weather signs
Kapingamarangi	gidee	to see, to notice, be able to see
Nukuoro	gide	see
	gide-e	seen
	gide sala	misidentify
Rennellese	kite	to look, see, find
	haka-kite	to point out, show
	kite-a	to be discovered, seen, found
Rarotongan	kite	knowledge, assured belief, that which is known; instruction, enlightenment, information, learning, practical skill; to see, to perceive, as by the eye; to recognize, to know, to be informed of, to discover, to observe; to be wise, to have knowledge or perception, to find
	kite-a	known, understood, found, discovered, etc.
	kite-mata	an eye-witness; one who has seen, as of anything done or performed
	kite-veka	a flash of knowledge, an inspiration; to see anything pass in a rapid manner, or to flash by
Maori	kite	see, perceive; find, discover; recognize; divination, prophecy, prophetic utterance
	whaka-kite	reveal, disclose; display
Hawaiian	ʔike	to see, know, feel, greet, recognize, understand; to know sexually; to receive revelations from the gods; knowledge, understanding, recognition, comprehension and hence learning; sense, as of hearing or sight; vision
	hō-ʔike	to show, make known, display, tell, exhibit, reveal, explain, testify, cause to know or see; testimony, proof, token, guide, exhibition
	hō-ʔike-ʔike	to display, exhibit, as in a museum or show; circus, museum, play, show of almost any kind

8528

PPh *i-pa-kita to show, display

WMP
Yami	i-pa-cita	display, show, cause to see
Ilokano	i-pa-kíta	to show, display
Tagalog	ipa-kíta	to show; to bring forward; to produce; to indicate; to make known; to demonstrate; to show openly

8529

PWMP *ma-kita able to be seen, visible

WMP
Yami	ma-cita	see, able to see
Itbayaten	ma-chita	to be able to see; to catch sight of
Ilokano	ma-kita	to see, notice; able to be seen
Tagalog	má-kíta	to be seen; to see; to sight; to catch sight of; to appear; to be able to be seen; to find; to be found
Yakan	ma-kite ma-kite	to show something off
Malagasy	ma-híta	to see, to find, to view, to discover; it is also used adjectivally of a very clever person
Totoli	mo-ita	to show something

8530

PWMP *maka-kita able to see

WMP
Yami	maka-cita	able to see, see
Tagalog	maká-kíta	to see; to be able to see; to have the power of sight; to see, meaning to catch sight of; to spy
Totoli	moko-ita	to show something

8531

PAN *pa-kita to show

Formosan
Kavalan	pa-qita	to show
Pazeh	pa-kita	to show
WMP
Tagalog	pa-kíta	demonstration; a sample; to allow oneself to be seen
	ayaw pa-kíta	to be unwilling to show oneself; to keep in the background; to keep out of sight
Mapun	pa-kita-han	to show something to someone; to reveal oneself or cause oneself to be seen
Yakan	pa-kite	to show something to someone; to appear, to show oneself
Tae'	pa-kita	able to see

8532

PAN *k<um>ita to see

Formosan
Kavalan	m-qita	to see; to be able to see; reflected
Saisiyat	k<om>ita	to see
Atayal	m-ita	to see, to look upon
Seediq	k<m>ita	to see (Ferrell 1969)
Favorlang/Babuza	m-ita	to see
Hoanya	k<am>ita	to see
Saaroa	k<um>a-kita	to see
Siraya	k<m>ita	to see
WMP
Yami	t<om>ita	look at, stare at, see
Ilokano	k<um>íta	to look, see
Klata	kommitto	to see

8533

PAN *kita-en be seen by someone (?)

Formosan
Atayal	kta-n	be seen by someone
Pazeh	kita-ʔen-ia	to have been discovered
WMP
Yami	cita-en	see, look
Ilokano	kita-en	to look at; examine; seek; watch over; pay attention to; watch out for
Tiruray	gito-n	visible

Note: Also Tsou ba-ito ‘to see’ (expected **bito), Casiguran Dumagat íta, məg-íta ‘to watch, look at’, meta ‘see’, Agta (Dupaningan) ma-enta ‘see, notice’, Kapampangan í-kit ‘see’, Bikol mag-kítaʔ ‘to look for something in or at a particular place’, ma-kítaʔ ‘to see’, Hanunóo maka-kít ‘see’, makit-án ‘be seen’, Hiligaynon mag-kítaʔ ‘to see each other’, Aklanon kítaʔ ‘to see; confer with, meet with’, pa-kítaʔ ‘to demonstrate, show, appear’, Waray-Waray kítaʔ ‘the act of seeing; ability to see; sight; vision; view; glimpse’, Masbatenyo mag-kítaʔ ‘look, see; meet’, kitaʔ-on ‘find, look for, locate’, Romblomanon kītaʔ ‘someone finds or sees someone, something’, Mansaka kítaʔ ‘to meet, to see each other by chance’, Tausug kitaʔ ‘see, look at, look in order to verify (something); look for, observe, see or watch without taking an active part’, Ngaju Dayak ite ‘seeing, be seen’, Katingan ñite, Lamboya eta, Makatea kutea, West Futunan katea ‘to see’.

In addition to its primary reference to physical sight, this base evidently served to express a variety of related notions, including understanding, conviction, and visionary activity, or ability to see the future. Philippine reflexes of this form raise several questions, as both Kapampangan and Hanunóo show irregular loss of the final vowel, and Bikol, most Bisayan languages and Tausug have an unexplained final glottal stop. Yami tita is assumed to be an analogical back-formation: since *t > c/__i appears to have been more common than the similar palatalization of *k, and only the form infixed with –om- is protected from palatalization, a majority of speakers must have assumed at some point in the history of the language that earlier *kita should properly contain t- rather than k-.

31914

*kitáŋ long fishing line with many hooks; to fish with such a line

10126

PPh *kitáŋ long fishing line with many hooks; to fish with such a line

WMP
Ilokano	kitáŋ	trawl, long fishing line with many hooks
	ag-kitáŋ	to fish using the kitáŋ
Tagalog	kítaŋ	fishing line or net with many hooks
Bikol	kitáŋ	a fishing line strung between two buoys with secondary hooked lines hanging off into the sea
Aklanon	kitáŋ	deep fishing line with hooks
	pa-ŋitáŋ	to fish with a long line having many hooks
Cebuano	kitáŋ	kind of longline sea fishing, done with a main line to which individual leaders with hooks are attached for catching large fish; to fish with the kitáŋ

30904

*kitek to tickle

8743

PWMP *kitek to tickle [doublet: *gitik]

WMP
Maranao	kitek	tickle
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kitek	to tickle
	kitek kitek kuʔkuʔ	an incantation used by children to immobilize an insect so that it may be caught
Tiruray	kitek	to tickle
Ida'an Begak	bə-kitok	to tickle
	k<ər>itok	to tickle
Bintulu	mitək	to tickle (< *k<əm>itək)

Note: Also Bikol mag-kítik ‘to tickle someone’, Mansaka kutuk ‘to tickle’, Binukid ketek, Tausug gituk ‘to tickle (someone)’.

26782

*kiteŋ marine fish sp. with venomous dorsal spines, Rabbitfish: Siganus punctatus

3242

PWMP *kiteŋ marine fish sp. with venomous dorsal spines, Rabbitfish: Siganus punctatus

WMP
Cebuano	kítuŋ	deep-sea fish with a compressed body and very fine, soft thin scales -- usually golden brown, speckled with grey; similar to daŋgit (flat fish with 13 poisonous dorsal spines), but a good deal larger
Malay	ikan kitaŋ	spotted butter-fish, Scatophagus spp. These fish have venomous dorsal fins.
Chamorro	hiteŋ	Rabbitfish: Siganus punctatus (family siganidae)

10134

POC *kitoŋ Rabbitfish: Siganus punctatus (family siganidae)

OC
Misima	kiton	Siganus punctatus, Siganus lineatus
Marovo	itoŋo	Rabbitfish, possibly Siganus corallinus (Oscellated orange spinefoot)
Rotuman	kifo	rabbit-faced spinefoot: Siganus rostratus
Wayan	kito	a reef fish, black with many orange dots, probably Siganus chrysospilos

Note: The similarity of Amis kiteŋ ‘species of river fish: Etrumeus micropus’ to the Malayo-Polynesian form is assumed to be a product of chance, as the Etrumeus micropus is a round herring that is devoid of venomous spines. Part of the Oceanic section of this comparison was first pointed out by Osmond (2011).

26781

*kitey suspension bridge

3241

PWMP *kitey suspension bridge

WMP
Tboli	kitay	bridge
Toba Batak	hite	narrow bamboo bridge

Note: With root *-tey ‘suspension bridge’.

31738

*kitik₁ to tickle

9906

PMP *kitik₁ to tickle [doublet: *kitek]

WMP
Hanunóo	kitík	tickling (of someone)
	mag-kitík	to tickle, will tickle (someone)
Singhi Land Dayak	kitik	to tickle
Malay	kitek ~ kitik	to tickle; to fidget
CMP
Tetun	kiti	to tickle

31915

*kitik₂ to tick, make a ticking or light knocking sound

10127

PMP *kitik₂ to tick, make a ticking or light knocking sound

WMP
Ilokano	kitík	sound of ticking (clocks)
	ag-kitík	to tick (said of a clock)
OC
Manam	kiti	to knock, tick (of a clock)

Note: With root *-tik₂ ‘ticking sound’

26783

*kitiŋ small in amount

3243

PWMP *kitiŋ small in amount

WMP
Ilokano	kítiŋ	short (garments, etc.); narrow, restricted, circumstances (building sites, etc.)
Malay	kitiŋ	bit, small portion

31800

*kitkit to bite, gnaw

9986

PMP *kitkit to bite, gnaw [doublet: *ketket]

WMP
Ilokano	kitkit-én	to nibble, gnaw
	kitkit-án	to nibble at, gnaw at
Cebuano	kitkít	wear something down, wear off bit by tiny bit, with the front teeth taking tiny bites
Paku	kikit	to bite
Samihim	kikit	to bite
Iban	gigit	to bite
Malay	gigit	biting
	məŋ-gigit	to bite
Mori	moŋ-kiki	to bite
CMP
Keo	kiki	to bite

Note: Iban and Malay show sporadic but recurrent voicing crossover in the velar stops.

26784

*kiud movement in coitus; sexual intercourse

3244

PMP *kiud movement in coitus; sexual intercourse [doublet: *iut] [disjunct: *kiuq, *kiut]

WMP
Cebuano	kíyud	thrust the lower part of the body forward, as male does in sexual intercourse; sexual intercourse (coarse, though not as taboo as iyut)
Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh)	kiod	the movement of a belly dancer’s hips
	me-kiod	sway the pelvis (as if dancing)
	kiod-kiod	the movement of the body after being tickled
Balinese	kiyud	stretch after sleeping
	kiyad-kiyud	squirm slowly, writhe, wriggle

9377

POC *kiur movement in coitus

OC
Gedaged	kiu	movement in coitus
	kiukiu	to hitch and hitch, said of a man (or woman) who fornicates

Note: Also Paiwan ki-uḍu ‘have sexual intercourse’, Kapampangan kiñud ‘motion of lower trunk’, Manggarai kido ‘have intercourse (crude)’. The large number of phonetically similar but non-corresponding forms only hinted at here and in the variants *kiuq and *kiut may be due to the irregular reworking of earlier forms as a result of taboo.

26785

*kiuk peep, cheep

3245

PMP *kiuk peep, cheep [doublet: *kiak 'squawk']

WMP
Kankanaey	kíok	pip, pule, peep, chirp, cheep
Tiruray	kiyok	a chicken’s cry in defeat; (of a chicken) to cry in defeat
Iban	kiuk	squawk
Malay	kiok, kiuk	cluck of a frightened fowl
Tontemboan	kiuk	peep of a chick
CMP
Manggarai	iuk	sound of swishing (as of a coconut frond being waved); sound of turmoil in the stomach
Rembong	kiok	to peep, cheep
Tetun	kiw	peep, chirp
Yamdena	iuk	any bird that makes a squawking sound "iuk"
	na-iuk	to squawk
OC
Nggela	kiu	to bark, of a dog

31311

*kiuq movement in coitus; sexual intercourse

9379

PMP *kiuq movement in coitus; sexual intercourse [doublet: *iut, *kiud, *kiut]

WMP
Maranao	kioʔ	sexual intercourse
Tiruray	kiyuʔ	sexual intercourse

9380

POC *kiuq movement in coitus; sexual intercourse

OC
Gedaged	kiu	movement in coitus
	kiu-kiu	to hitch and hitch, said of a man (or woman) who fornicates

Note: Also Bikol kitóʔ ‘have intercourse with (vulgar)’, Chamorro kichi ‘coitus, sexual intercourse’.

31310

*kiut movement in coitus; sexual intercourse

9378

PWMP *kiut movement in coitus; sexual intercourse [doublet: *iut, *kiud, *kiuq]

WMP
Kayan	kiut	jerking motion in sexual intercourse
Sangir	kiuʔ	up-and-down movement of sexual intercourse
	me-ka-kiuʔ	have sexual intercourse

Note: Also Mongondow iut ‘coitus’, mog-iut ‘to copulate’, Proto-South Sulawesi *kendu(C) ‘have sexual intercourse’.

31933

*kiwal sinuous, winding

10149

PPh *kiwal sinuous, winding

WMP
Isneg	kíwal	curved, crooked, bent, tortuous, winding
Tagalog	kiwál	sinuous movement, like that of a snake

Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat kiwəl ‘crooked, bent’, kiwəl ‘to bend over, to bend oneself to the side’.

33450

*kiwih twisted or crooked mouth

12158

PPh *kiwih twisted or crooked mouth

WMP
Pangasinan	kiwí	to twitch, move a part of the body
Ayta Abellan	kiwih	to be crooked or off-center (as one’s mouth)
Agutaynen	ma-kiwi	facial paralysis of one side of the mouth, causing the mouth to appear crooked and droopy; to intentionally screw up one’s mouth in disgust
Cebuano	kíwiʔ	to grow stiff or cramped in the joints, twisted out of shape; to screw up one’s mouth into a frown

30926

*kiwiwi shore bird: sandpiper, Pacific Golden Plover

8780

POC *kiwiwi shore bird: sandpiper, Pacific Golden Plover

OC
Gapapaiwa	kivivi	sea bird
Motu	kivivi	sandpiper: Tringoides hypoleucus
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka	kiwiwi	sandpiper spp
Molima	kiwiwi	sandpiper
Tubetube	kiwikiwiwi	a bird, the sandpiper
Takuu	kivi	bird taxon: Pacific Golden Plover [Pluvialis fulva]; Mongolian Plover [Charadrius mongolia]; Wandering Tattler [Tringa incana]
Sikaiana	kivi	bird sp.
	kivi(aitu)	Grey-rumped sandpiper, Heteroscelus brevipes
	kivi(talei)	a small wading bird, the Ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres)
Nukuoro	givi-givi	bird sp, the Ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres)
Anuta	kiui	small bird which comes only during monsoon season
Maori	kiwi	Apteryx of various species; wingless birds

Note: Also Halia kivi ‘generic term for waders, esp. Pluvialis fulva [Pacific Golden Plover]’, Tongan kiu ‘sea bird; it has long legs and runs very fast; to run fast (like a kiu), to scurry, dash off, or hurry along’, Niue kiu ‘a bird, the plover’, Futunan kiu ‘a bird: sea lark (‘alouette de mer’), with red feet, black back and white breast’, Tikopia kiu ‘Bristle-thighed curlew, Numenius tahitiensis’.

Clark (2011) assigns *kiwiwi ‘sandpiper sp.’ to ‘Proto-Western Oceanic’, and dissociates it from Proto-Polynesian *kiu ~ *kiwi ‘shore bird taxon including Pluvialis and Numenius’. Instead, I see Polynesian kiwi forms as reflecting *kiwiwi with haplology, parallel to the pattern seen in Oceanic reflexes of *kilala ‘to know (a person), recognize, be acquainted with’, and Polynesian kiu forms as products of sporadic apocope with resyllabification of *-w. This word probably was imitative of the cry of these shore birds, and divergent attempts to better imitate their calls may well have given rise to forms such as PPn *kiu, and Tubetube kiwikiwiwi.

31646

*kiwkiw₁ to wave, wag (tail); to stir (people) up

9802

PAN *kiwkiw to wave, wag (tail); to stir (people) up

Formosan
Kavalan	qiwqiw	to wave (as a person waving clothes to dry them)
	q<m>iwqiw	to stir up
WMP
Ilokano	ag-kiwkíw	to wag the tail
	kiwkiw-an	to paddle; incite, instigate, urge, persuade; trap
Cebuano	kiwkíw	shake rapidly in pain, as the hand after hitting one’s finger with a hammer

32723

*kiwkiw₂ to stir, mix in

11155

PPh *kiwkiw₂ to stir, mix in

WMP
Itbayaten	chiwchiw	stir it!
Ivatan	ciwciw	stir
Bontok	ʔi-kiwkiw	to stir around, as to stir the ashes of a fire with a stick; any instrument used for this action
Ibaloy	i-kiwkiw	to use something to stir (as a spoon)

11156

PPh *kiwkiw-en to stir, mix in

WMP
Itbayaten	chiwchiw-en	to stir liquid or mixture with liquid; to stir up
Ivatan	ciwciw-en	be stirred up
Bontok	kiwkiw-ən	be stirred up
Ibaloy	kiwkiw-en	to stir something (as sugar into solution)

26786

*kizab sparkle, flash; lustre

3246

PWMP *kizab sparkle, flash; lustre [disjunct: *kizap]

WMP
Tagalog	kiláb	lustre, resplendance
Iban	kijap	sparkle, flash

26793

*ki(n)zak tread, step

3253

PMP *ki(n)zak tread, step

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kijak	tread, step
Malagasy	hindzaka	dance
CMP
Ngadha	kida	tread, step

Note: With root *-zak ‘step, tread’.

31763

*kizap sparkle, flash

9933

PWMP *kizap sparkle, flash [doublet: *kizab]

WMP
Maranao	kirap	shine
Iban	kijap	sparkle, flash, twinkle (as the glitter of a diamond)

Note: Also Proto-Sangiric *kedap ‘to shine, flicker’.

26787

*kizem close the eyes

3247

PWMP *kizem close the eyes [doublet: *kezem] [disjunct: *kidem]

WMP
Ilokano	kidém	close the eyes
Yogad	kídam	close the eyes
Pangasinan	kirem	close the eyes
Malay	kijam	closing the eyes
Balinese	kidem	shut the eyes tightly

Note: Also Tagalog kuráp, Toba Batak hidop ‘wink’.

26794

*ki(n)zep blink, wink

3254

PWMP *ki(n)zep blink, wink [doublet: *kezep]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kidep	forehead
Pangasinan	kirep	eyebrow
Toba Batak	hidop	blink, wink
Balinese	kijap-kijep	blink the eyes
Sasak	kinjep	blink, wink

Note: Also Tagalog kuráp ‘wink’.

TOP ka ke ki ko ku kw

30025

*koba hermit crab

6721

POC *koba hermit crab

OC
Nauna	kai-kop	hermit crab
Lou	asa-kom	hermit crab
Pak	kop	hermit crab
Loniu	puo-kop	hermit crab
Nali	brua-kop	hermit crab
Lindrou	bo-kom	hermit crab
Bipi	pwe-kom	hermit crab
Motu	ko-kopa	a crab
Selau	koba	hermit crab
Roviana	koba	hermit crab
Bugotu	koba	hermit crab
Nggela	komba	hermit crab

32030

*kodos go straight; straighten

10259

POC *kodos go straight; straighten

OC
Mendak	to-kodos	straight
Tolai	kodo	straight
	ta-kodo	pure, true, holy, honest, straight, righteous, decent, proper, seemly, reasonable, level
Motu	ma-oro	straight; correct
Nehan	kod-kodoh	correct, directly, straight, righteous
Kwaio	odo	straight; correct
	faʔa-odo-a	straighten out
Lau	odo-odo	go in a direct line, straight opposite
'Āre'āre	oto-oto	straight; correct and proper in conduct
Sa'a	odo ~ odo-odo	straight; go straight forward; be correct and proper
Arosi	odo ~ odo-odo	straight
	odo-na	the right hand

Note: A slightly different version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2003a:212).

31625

*koe 2sg., you

9777

POC *koe 2sg., you

OC
Motu	oi	thou
Hoava	goe	you (sg.)
Kusaghe	goe	you (sg.)
Roviana	(a)-goi	you, thou
Nggela	(i)-goe	thou, 2nd person singular
Arosi	Ɂoe	thou; you there! friend! (used continually in address where English uses no word)
Canala	kɨ	thou
Tongan	koe	2sg., you (thee, thou)
Niue	koe	2sg., thou, you
Samoan	Ɂoe	2sg. conjunct and disjunt verbal pronoun
Rennellese	koe	you (sg.)
Rarotongan	koe	2sg., you, thee, thou
Maori	koe	2sg., you, thee, thou
Hawaiian	Ɂoe	you (sg.)

Note: This widespread Oceanic form is sometimes thought to be a reflex of PAn *kaSu, but there is no straightforward way in which a derivation of POc *koe from PAn *kaSu, PMP *kahu is possible.

30490

*koi coconut shell

7695

POC *koi coconut shell

OC
Mussau	koi-koi	coconut shell; canoe bailer of same
Eddystone/Mandegusu	koi	coconut shell

Note: Also Roviana ko-koe ‘coconut shell’. This form may have been *koi-koi.

31695

*kojom sharp pointed stick used in planting crops and in husking coconuts; digging stick, coconut husking stick

9859

POC *kojom sharp pointed stick used in planting crops and in husking coconuts; digging stick, coconut husking stick

OC
Nauna	oc	coconut husking stick
Lou	os	to husk coconuts
Wuvulu	oto	digging stick; coconut husking stick
Kove	koso	to husk a coconut
Wogeo	koj	to husk coconuts
	kojo	coconut husking stick
Kwaio	ʔoto	hit and perforate; put stick in ground, tether pig to it; jab, stick, throw (out)
	ʔoto-mika	spear something; call up kinsmen for a fight
Lau	ʔoto	to poke, thrust, jab; to pierce, insert
	ʔoto-mai	to plant cuttings, poke in, insert into
'Āre'āre	oto	a war spear, arrow with one barb
Proto-Micronesian	*koso	coconut husking stick
Gilbertese	koro	stake, pointed stick used to take husk off coconut, dart pointed at both ends, spur, horn, etc.
Pohnpeian	kodo-kod	to husk with a stick; to gore; to engage in sexual intercourse in a female superior position
Mokilese	kod	husking stick
Chuukese	woot	coconut husking stick, digging stick used in cultivation (made of Pemphis acidula wood if possible)
Mota	goso	to job a spike, hence to husk a coconut with a pointed stick
	i-goso	coconut husking stick
Niue	koho	digging stick
Futunan	koso	stake, post (as for husking coconuts)
Samoan	ʔoso	to dig, dig up; stick used for digging or planting
Tuvaluan	koho	sharp stick for husking coconuts
Kapingamarangi	goo	husking stick
Nukuoro	goo	taro spade
Rennellese	koso	digging stick; pickaxe
Rarotongan	kō	general name applied to anything that is used to dig or poke or thrust with, such as a spade or fork which is used for digging the ground, a spear, a pointed instrument used as a lever, or that which is used to poke, prod or stab with; a pointed stake used in the process of removing the husk from a coconut; to dig or plant with a kō; to spear or stab; to prod, poke, thrust or pierce with an implement that is pointed
Maori	kō	a wooden implement for digging or planting; sometimes used as a weapon of war; to dig or plant with a kō; to thrust
Hawaiian	ʔō	any piercing instrument, fork, pin, sharpened stick, pitchfork, fishing spear, coconut husker; to pierce, vaccinate, prick, stab, thrust, etc.

9860

POC *kojom-i to dig with a digging stick, to husk coconuts with a husking stick

OC
'Āre'āre	otomi-a	to spear
Arosi	koto-mi	to spear
	koto-mia	speared
Proto-Micronesian	*koso-mi	to husk coconuts
Pohnpeian	kodom	to husk with a stick; to gore; to engage in sexual intercourse in a female superior position
Mokilese	kodom	to husk with a husking stick

Note: Lichtenberk and Osmond (1998:167) first proposed POc *kojom ‘husking stick’, *kojom-i ‘to husk coconuts’. The figurative extension in Pohnpeian is quite transparent (penis = husking stick, with coconut being actively thrust against it, an image that would not work in the ‘missionary position’).

31985

*koka a tree: Macaranga spp., Euphorbiaceae

10209

POC *koka a tree: Macaranga spp., Euphorbiaceae

OC
Patpatar	koka	Macaranga quadriglandulosa
Kwara'ae	ʔoʔa	Glochidion angulatum
Hiw	nə-gogə	Macaranga tanarius
Motlav	no-gog	Macaranga tanarius
Wayan	koka	a forest tree, apparently not on Waya; timber is used for posts and rafters: Bischofia javanica (Euphorbiaceae)
Fijian	koka	a plant, Bischofia javanica, Euphorbiaceae
Tongan	koka	tree with reddish wood: Bischofia javanica; stain for tapa cloth made from the bark of the koka tree
Niue	koka	a tree the wood of which is used for rafters: Baccaurea seemannii
Samoan	ʔoʔa	tree from the bark of which a brown dye is extracted which is used in decorating bark cloth: Bischofia sp.
Rennellese	koka	to darken wood (as spears) or bleach hair with grated guna (Morinda) root and coral lime; to dye red, as hair
Rarotongan	koka	a native tree: Bischofia javanica or Allophylus vitiensis
Maori	koka	brown; the brown outer skin adhering to the fiber of flax if badly dressed

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2008c:243).

30470

*koki lame; to limp

7665

POC *koki lame; to limp

OC
Tolai	kok	lame, paralyzed; lameness, generally attributed to some poison which is put on tabu ground; a lame man
Rarotongan	koki	lame, lamish
	koki-koki	to exhibit lameness
	piri-koki	to be affected with lameness
Maori	koki	limp
Hawaiian	ʔoʔi	to limp
	hō-ʔoʔi	to cause to limp; to pretend to limp

Note: Also Nukuoro dodi ‘have a limp (physical condition)’.

31986

*koko kind of house spider

10210

POC *koko kind of house spider

OC
Tolai	koko	all kinds of house spider
Gapapaiwa	wa-koko	large species of spider that sometimes occupies outhouses
Dobuan	wa-koko	brown house spider
Tolo	koko-mici	large house spider

Note: A somewhat larger version of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011a:410).

31764

*koŋa kind of marine fish

9934

POC *koŋa kind of marine fish

OC
Nauna	koŋ	kind of squarish fish with hard skin
Lou	koŋ	kind of squarish yellow or brown fish
Pak	kuŋ	kind of four-cornered fish
Leipon	koŋ	large brown or yellow four-cornered fish
Roviana	koŋa	fish similar to garfish, but doesn’t swim on surface
Nggela	koŋa	species of long fish

Note: Judging from the physical descriptions given by informants, the referents in the Admiralties do not appear to be the same as those in the Solomons, leaving open the question whether this term labels a still unidentified fish, or is a product of chance convergence.

31696

*koŋe squeal, as in excitement

9861

POC *koŋe squeal, as in excitement

OC
Tolai	koŋ ~ koŋe	to make an exclamation of surprise; to admire, be amazed or surprised at something, marvel
Fijian	koŋe	to squal or grunt, as young pigs

Note: Possibly a product of chance.

31987

*kopu low cloud, mist, fog

10211

POC *kopu low cloud, mist, fog

OC
Lou	kɔp-kɔp	dust; fog, mist
Mono-Alu	ma-kohu	fog
Raga	govu	clouded
Fijian	govu	light clouds covering the land when
Marquesan	kohu	fog, haze

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Ross (2003:140-141).

32031

*koran ember, glowing coal

10260

POC *koran ember, glowing coal

OC
Halia	korana	live coal, ember
Tinputz	oran	glowing embers
'Āre'āre	kora	charcoal, ashes, embers
	ora	fireplace
	ʔora-ʔora	ashes, dust
Ulawa	ora	to flame, to burn brightly; ashes
	ora-ora	ashes
Arosi	ʔora	to blaze, gleam, shine
Maori	kora	spark; fire, fuel

Note: A slightly larger version of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond, Pawley and Ross (2003:71).

31988

*koraŋa a fish, small emperor

10212

POC *koraŋa a fish, small emperor

OC
Lou	kolaŋ	immature growth stage of unidentified marine fish
Titan	kolaŋ	emperor: Lethrinidae
Marovo	kora-koraŋa	small emperor

Note: A slighter larger version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond (2011:83), who posited POc *koraŋ ‘emperor, Lethrinidae. However, this reconstruction fails to note that the final -VC of POc forms was lost in all languages of the eastern Admiralties, and that *koraŋ would therefore have produced Titan **kor. Even with this correction the comparison remains tenuous without further support.

31892

*kori scrape, shave

10099

POC *kori scrape, shave

OC
Dobuan	koli	to scrape
Sa'a	kori	to scrape yams
Gilbertese	kori-ta	to scratch, to claw
	kori-kori	to scratch

Note: Dempwolff (1938) compared Javanese kerik ‘shaving and shaping of the hair on a bride’s forehead’ with Sa'a kori and Fijian ta-kori ‘to shave’. I am unable to find the latter form, and the wider comparison seems best attributed to chance.

31824

*koro₁ 2dl. pronoun

10016

POC *koro₁ 2dl. pronoun

OC
Eddystone/Mandegusu	kolo	2sg. pronoun, thou (only in ceremonial language)
Bugotu	koro	pronominal verbal particle: you two, they two
Maori	koro	you two (colloquial)

Note: This reconstruction is puzzling. Pawley (1972:72) contains a systematic ordering of second person dual pronouns (focal, objective, subjective and possessive) for over 20 ‘Eastern Oceanic’ languages, and this form plays no part in that set of data. Its ultimate position in the reconstruction of the pronoun sets of POc remains to be determined.

30063

*koro₂ fortified place; village

6765

POC *koro₂ fortified place; village

OC
Loniu	ko	village
Nali	kon	village
Titan	kol	village
Leipon	kor	village
Likum	koh	village
Sori	oh	village
Bipi	kox	village
Namakir	kor	fence, rail
	koro-vat	stone wall
Rotuman	koro	fortified place, fortress
Wayan	koro	village, hamlet, town, city; any nucleated human settlement
Fijian	koro	an eminence; a village
Tongan	kolo	village, town, fortress; temporary fence of native cloth round an open grave
Niue	kolo	fort, tower, lookout point
Samoan	ʔolo	fort; shelter

Note: Tongan kolo (expected **kō) may be a loan from Fijian. Milke (1968) included the Central Pacific forms cited here under *gor(a,o) ‘mountain’, but may have confused two distinct cognate sets.

32032

*koro₃ mountain, hilltop

10261

POC *koro₃ mountain, hilltop

OC
Lamogai	oro	mountain
Manam	oro	to landwards (away from the sea)
Motu	oro-ro	mountain
Mono-Alu	olo	hill
Nggela	goro	the back country, forest-covered interior hills
Kosraean	ɔl	mountain

Note: Also Hawaiian olo ‘hill (obsolete now except in place-names)’. A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond, Pawley and Ross (2003:49). Given the semantic overlap of ‘fortified village’ and ‘mountain, hilltop’ it is possible that *koro₂ and *koro₃ are the same cognate set, although the meanings of ‘settlement’ and ‘topographic eminence’ are well-separated in the two sets.

30065

*koron to lie, tell a lie

6767

POC *koron to lie, tell a lie

OC
Mussau	koron-ana	false; lie
Manam	koro ~ koro-koro	to lie, tell a lie
Gedaged	koz	rumor, hearsay, tittle-tattle, gossip, suppositions

31989

*kororo honeybee

10213

POC *kororo honeybee

OC
Lou	koror	bee (generic)
Sinaugoro	kororo	cricket
Teop	kororo	honeybee, honey; ear wax

Note: This comparison was first noted by Osmond (2011a:387-388).

31990

*koRa wild mango: Mangifera minor

10214

POC *koRa wild mango: Mangifera minor

OC
Tolai	ko-kor	mango sp.: Mangifera minor (?)
Roro	or-or	mango
Nggela	kola	mango tree and fruit

Note: A slightly longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (1996b), and again in Ross (2008a:341).

32033

*koRo pubic hair

10262

POC *koRo pubic hair

OC
Lukep (Pono)	koro-	pubic hair
Bola	koro	pubic hair
Gapapaiwa	igi-koro	pubic hair (male)
	kio-koro	pubic hair (female)
	mata-koro	eyelash
Roviana	goro	pubic hair
Proto-Micronesian	*koro	pubic hair
Puluwat	kor	pubic hair, hair in armpits (vulgar)
Carolinian	goor ~ ghoor	pubic hair

Note: A slightly longer version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond and Ross (2016:98).

31991

*kosa kind of parrotfish

10215

POC *kosa kind of parrotfish

OC
Misima	kosa	generic for certain colored parrotfish species
Toqabaqita	kosa	species of parrotfish: Scarus sp.
Carolinian	oscha	large species of parrotfish

Note: A somewhat larger version of this comparison was first noted by Osmond (2011:97).

32034

*koso a cough; to cough

10263

POC *koso a cough; to cough

OC
Medebur	koso	cough
Gapapaiwa	koso-koso	to cough
Halia	koso	to cough, have a cold
Teop	koho	cough

Note: A slightly longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross and Osmond 2016:302.

31765

*koti to cut, cut off

9935

POC *koti to cut, cut off

OC
Seimat	koti	to cut bush, fell trees
Label	kot	to cut off (through)
Nggela	goti	to cut off, as taro bud in planting
Southeast Ambrym	kot	to cut hair
Fijian	koti	to clip, to shear

30125

*koto obsidian spear point (?)

6858

POC *koto obsidian spear point (?)

OC
Tolai	koto	piece of shell or glass used for cutting, or as a lance; hence, a lance; obsidian
Arosi	ʔoo	a spear

Note: Also Toqabaqita ʔotobotho ‘kind of long spear’ (botho = ‘pig’), Arosi koto ‘to spear’, koto-mia ‘speared’, oto ‘arrow without barbs’, 'Āre'āre oto ‘a war spear; arrow with one barb’, otomi-a ‘to spear’. A much fuller comparison supporting this reconstruction appears in Osmond and Ross (1998) where, however, Arosi ʔoo is missing, and many proposed cognates meaning ‘to cut’ and the like may reflect POc *kotop. Many of the forms in the southeast Solomons show what appears to be irregular retention of *t, and may be loans from an unidentified source.

TOP ka ke ki ko ku kw

30923

*-ku 1sg genitive (marker of non-subject agency and possession; my; by me)

8769

PAN *-ku 1sg genitive (marker of non-subject agency and possession; my; by me)

Formosan
Kavalan	-ku	my (singular, genitive); marks possessor and agent of an undergoer verb
Atayal	-ku	primary pronoun, I
Bunun	-ku	1sg genitive
Tsou	-ʔu	1sg genitive
Saaroa	-ku	1sg genitive; marks possessor and agent of an undergoer verb
Puyuma	nan-ku	my, mine
Paiwan	ku-	I, my
WMP
Yami	ko	first person singular genitive pronoun, I, my
Itbayaten	-ko	my, mine; 1sg postnominal possessive pronoun
Ilokano	-ko	ergative first person singular enclitic pronoun: I, my; changes to –k after vowels and the suffixes –an and -en
Isneg	ko	my, I; the first person singular of the possessives, when added to a word ending in a consonant; if added to a word ending in a vowel, it is replaced by a glottal catch
Papuma	-u	1sg possessive suffix: my
Bontok	-ku	1st person minimal pronoun: I, my
Kankanaey	-ko	my, I; 1sg postnominal possessive pronoun
Ifugaw	-ku	pronominal enclitic of the first person singular with genitive or possessiv meaning; if the word to which ku should be affixed ends in a vowel, only k is affixed, u being eliminated
Ifugaw (Batad)	-ʔu	1sg genitive pronoun (marks possessor and non-focus agent or actor of the action of a verb)
Casiguran Dumagat	-ko	first person singular attributive (= genitive) pronoun
Ibaloy	ko	I, my; 1sg possessor and agent of a non-actor focus verb (-k after vowel-final stems)
Isinay	-ku	my, 1st person singular genitive pronoun (variant: -k)
Pangasinan	-ko	me, my, by me (attributive pronoun; -k when preceding word ends in a vowel)
Sambal (Botolan)	-ko	1sg postnominal possessive pronoun
Kapampangan	-ku	short form of áku, ‘I’
Tagalog	-ko	pronoun, my; mine (postpositive form of ákin)
Bikol	-ko	I, by me; ni class first person singular pronoun (nonsubject agent or actor, plus possessor)
Romblomanon	-ku	my person or thing; a person or thing of mine; my doing something (post-noun or post-gerund possessive adjective pronoun; genitive pronoun, something is done by me
Masbatenyo	-ko	I, by me; 1sg genitive pronoun which substitutes for the san class noun phrase; my, of mine
Aklanon	-ko	my, mine, I
Kalamian Tagbanwa	-u	1sg postnominal possessive pronoun
Hiligaynon	-ku	I, me (short form of nákun)
Palawan Batak	-ku	1sg postnominal possessive pronoun
Central Tagbanwa	-ko	1sg genitive pronoun (marks possessors and non-focused participants in verbal clauses)
Maranao	-ko	mine
Binukid	-ku	1sg nontopic pronoun: I, my
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	-ku	1sg nontopic pronoun
Mansaka	-ko	personal pronoun: 1sg relative (possessor and nontopic agent)
Kalagan	-ku	1sg postnominal possessive pronoun
Mapun	-ku	I; me; my; 1sg pronoun, both focus and non focus; also 1sg possessive pronoun
Yakan	-ku	1sg ergative pronoun; 1sg possessive pronoun
Molbog	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun
Bonggi	-ku/hu	1sg genitive pronoun
Tboli	-u	I, me, my, mine
Sangil	-ku	1sg postnominal possessive pronoun (after consonant-final bases)
Manobo (Sarangani)	-ko	postnominal possessor and nontopic agent
Tausug	-ku	pronoun: first person singular non-topic actor, causer, and possessor pronoun; I, my, mine, by me
Rungus Dusun	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun
Lingkabau	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun
Kadazan Dusun	-ku	1sg non-focus actor and possessor
Tombonuwo	-ku	I, me
Murut (Timugon)	-ku	I, my; 1sg non-focus actor and possessor
Ida'an Begak	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun (marks both possessor and non-subject actor of an undergoer verb)
Tidung	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun
Bisaya (Limbang)	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun
Kelabit	-kuh	1sg agent and possessor (genitive) pronoun; my, by me
Kayan (Uma Juman)	-k	1sg possessive pronoun (following stems that originally ended in a vowel)
	kuy	1sg possessive pronoun (following stems that originally ended in a consonant)
Kiput	-kaw	1sg actor, patient, and possessor: I, me, my
Bintulu	-kəw	1sg genitive pronoun (marker of non-subject agency and possession)
Melanau (Mukah)	-kəw	1sg genitive pronoun (marker of non-subject agency and possession)
Ngaju Dayak	-ku	suffixed 1sg personal or possessive pronoun, I, my (after consonant-final bases)
Malagasy	-ku	a suffixed pronoun of the first person added to nouns and passive and relative verbs; it is the sign of possession when joined to nouns, and the agent of a passive or relative verb
Malay	-ku	1sg possessive pronoun
Gayō	-ku	1sg non-subject actor and possessive pronoun (after consonant-final bases)
Simalur	-ʔu	1sg suffixed possessive pronoun after consonant-final bases)
Karo Batak	-ku	1sg suffixed possessive pronoun: my, mine (after consonant-final bases)
Toba Batak	hu	1sg suffixed possessive pronoun and prenominal agent
Mentawai	-ku	I; 1sg postnominal possessive pronoun: my
Rejang	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Old Javanese	-ku	suffix for the first person (after stems that end with a consonant other than n)
Javanese	-ku	my; our
Sasak	-ku	1sg possessive suffix with nouns and marker of agent with verbs
Sangir	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my, mine
Tontemboan	-ku	1sg genitive suffix (marks possession and agent of a passive verb)
Toratán	-ku	1sg genitive suffix (marks possession and agent of a passive verb)
Mongondow	-ku	1sg agent of a passive verb and possessive pronoun: my
Totoli	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Boano	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Tae'	-ŋku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Makassarese	-ŋku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Wolio	-ku	nominal suffix, possessive first person singular: my
Muna	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Palauan	-k	1sg possessive suffix: my
	ku-	preverbal subject pronoun (‘hypothetical pronoun’)
Chamorro	-hu ~ -ku	1sg possessive suffix and preverbal subject pronoun
CMP
Komodo	-ŋu	1sg possessive suffix: my
Kambera	-ŋgu	1sg possessive suffix: my
Tetun	-k	1sg possessive suffix (in the construction au-X-k): my
Leti	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Selaru	-k-kwe	1sg possessive suffix: my
Alune	-ku, au... -ku	1sg possessive suffix
Asilulu	ku-	1sg genitive pronoun for alienable possession
	-ku	1sg genitive pronoun for inalienable possession
SHWNG
Buli	ya-na-k	my, mine (with foods, hence marker of edible possession)
	ya-ni-k	my, mine, marker of general possession (house, book, boat, etc.)
Ambai	-hu	my, mine, marker of general possession (house, book, boat, etc.)

8771

POC *-gu 1sg possessive pronoun; my

OC
Lou	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Penchal	-ʔ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Lenkau	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Pak	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Loniu	-ʔ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Nali	-ʔ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Leipon	-w	1sg possessive suffix; my
Ahus	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Kuruti	-ʔ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Kele	-ʔ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Pelipowai	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Levei	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Likum	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Lindrou	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Bipi	-ʔ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Seimat	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Wuvulu	-u	1sg possessive suffix; my
Yapese	-g	1sg possessive suffix; my
Mussau	-gu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Tigak	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Mendak	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix; my
Tolai	-ŋgu	1sg possessive suffix, used with all nouns of a personal nature, i.e. parts of the body, relatives, etc.
Kilenge	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Amara	-k	1sg possessive suffix; my
Lusi	-gu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Mouk	-gu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Lamogai	-gu ~ ŋu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Kove	-gu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Kairiru	-k	1sg inalienable possessive pronoun; my
Wogeo	-g	1sg possessive suffix; my
Manam	-gu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Gedaged	-g	a suffix added to certain substantives to indicate that the first person singular is the possessor
Takia	-g	1sg possessive suffix; my
Mbula	-ŋ	1sg genitive suffix that occurs on inalienable nouns
Gitua	-ŋgu	1sg possessive pronoun: my
Patep	-g	my
Gapapaiwa	-ku	1sg possessive suffix; my
Magori	-gu	1sg. genitive; my
Kilivila	-gu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Cheke Holo	-g-u	my (possessive suffix, inalienable object)
Roviana	-ŋgu	1sg possessive suffix; my
Zabana	-gu	lsg. possessor, my
Bugotu	-ŋgu	suffixed pronoun of possession: my
Lau	-gu	I; my
Toqabaqita	-ku	1sg possessive suffix (mostly suffixed to possessum nouns in the suffixing possessive construction); 1sg object suffix with Class 2 transitive verbs
'Āre'āre	-ku	1sg possessive ending: my; suffixed to nouns of parts of the body, and relationship, to adverbs and prepositions connected with persons
Sa'a	-ku	1sg possessive pronoun: my; suffixed to nouns; suffixed to certain verbs as object and also to verbal nouns used as prepositions
Arosi	-gu	1sg possessive pronoun: my; occasionally gu or ku is a personal pronoun, first person singular, especially in old songs
Gilbertese	-u	1sg possessive suffix: my
Kosraean	-k	1sg possessive pronoun: my
Mota	-k	1sg possessive pronoun, suffixed to some nouns: my (same as –ku)
Koro	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix: my
Tasmate	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Narango	-ŋku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Araki	-ku	1sg possessive pronoun: my
Wailengi	-ŋgu	1sg possessive suffix: my
Marino	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my
Peterara	-ŋgu	1sg possessive suffix: my
Northeast Ambae	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my (directly attached to most kin terms, body parts, natural behavior and intimate personal property, but to possessive classifiers ga- ‘food possession’, me- ‘drink possession’, bula- natural or valued object possession’, no- ‘general possession’ for non-intimate or alienable possessive relationships)
Seke	-ŋk	1sg possessive suffix: my
Naman	-ŋk	1sg possessive suffix: my
V'ënen Taut	-k	1sg possessive pronoun, suffixed to some nouns: my
Vinmavis	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix: my
Lonwolwol	-k	1sg possessive suffix: my (directly attached to many relationship terms, and some names of bodily parts)
Paamese	-ku	1sg possessive suffix: my (directly attached to some relationship terms but to ‘possessive nominals’ aa- ‘edible possession, mo- ‘potable possession’, so- ‘possession according to traditional law’, ono- ‘general manipulative possession’ for non-intimate possession)
Filakara	-u	1sg possessive suffix: my
Namakir	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix: my
Sesake	-ŋgu	1sg possessive suffix: my
Lelepa	-ŋu	1sg possessive suffix: my
Sye	-g	1sg possessive suffix: my
Lenakel	-k	1sg possessive suffix: my
Kwamera	-k	inalienable first person singular possessive suffix: my
Anejom	-k	1sg possessive suffix: my
Nyelâyu	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix: my
Iaai	-k	1sg possessive suffix: my, of me
Cèmuhî	-ŋ	1sg possessive suffix: my
Nengone	-gu ~ -go	1sg possessive suffix: my, mine
Wayan	-ŋgu	1sg possessive pronoun, directly preposed to head noun, marking part-possession
Fijian	-ŋgu	1sg possessive pronoun: my, mine; added to some nouns and the possessive roots no-, ke-, me-
Tongan	heʔe-ku, ho-ku	definite 1sg exclusive: my
Niue	hā-ku, hō-ku	1sg possessive pronoun: my, mine
Futunan	la-ku, lo-ku	1sg definite possessive adjective: my, mine
Samoan	la-ʔu, lo-ʔu	1sg exclusive nominal pronoun (definite, with singular reference); my
Tuvaluan	ta-ku, to-ku	my (singular possessed)
Kapingamarangi	da-gu, do-gu	my (first person singular, singular goal)
Nukuoro	da-gu, do-gu	my one
Rennellese	ta-ku, to-ku	my, mine
Anuta	ta-ku, to-ku	possessive pronoun, first person singular (my), with singular object
Rarotongan	tā-ku, tō-ku	1sg possessive pronoun: my
Maori	tā-ku, tō-ku	1sg possessive pronoun: my (with singular possessed object)
Hawaiian	ka-ʔu, ko-ʔu	my, mine

8770

PMP *ni-ku 1sg genitive (marker of non-subject agency and possession; my; by me)

WMP
Sangil	-ŋku	1sg postnominal possessive pronoun (after vowel-final bases)
Ngaju Dayak	-ŋku	suffixed 1sg personal or possessive pronoun, I, my (after vowel-final bases)
Gayō	-ŋku	1sg non-subject actor and possessive pronoun (after vowel-final bases)
Simalur	-ŋʔu	1sg suffixed possessive pronoun after vowel-final bases)
Karo Batak	-ŋku	1sg suffixed possessive pronoun: my, mine (after vowel-final bases)
Old Javanese	-ŋku	suffix for the first person (after bases that end with n, or a vowel)
Dampelas	-ŋku	1sg possessive suffix
Banggai	-ŋgu	1sg possessive pronoun after vowels (suffixed to the possessum for directly possessed nouns such as body parts, but to the determiner ko for indirectly possessed nouns): ko mata-ŋgu ‘my eye’, but ko-ŋgu bonua ‘my house’
	-gu	1sg possessive pronoun after bases that end with ŋ
	-u ~ -oŋgu	1sg possessive pronoun after consonants other than ŋ construction ko-X-ŋgu): my

Note: This is clearly the ‘short form’ of *aku ‘1sg nominative’, but since the two shapes are not related by a morphological process (unless one appeals in a somewhat ad hoc fashion to subtractive morphology) they are documented separately. Most Formosan data cited here is from Ross (2006). As noted in Blust (1977), prenasalized forms of *-ku reflect *ni-kú (*ni ‘genitive case marker for singular human referents + *-ku ‘1sg gen.’), in which the unstressed vowel of *ni was lost, followed by nasal place assimilation. It seems clear that this change had already taken place in POc, where reflexes of the genitive pronouns function only to indicate possessors, and never agents. However, in WMP languages the reduction of *ni-kú to -ŋku may have happened at different times across a wide range of languages, and it is therefore assumed that PMP still had *ni-kú).

In POc and many of its descendants, whether indicated in the glosses given here or not, the possessive pronouns are suffixed to directly possessed (‘inalienably possessed’) nouns, such as most body parts and kin terms, the words for ‘name’ and ‘shadow, reflection (soul)’, and perhaps a few others, while they are suffixed to a possessive classifier for indirect possession, usually distinguishing edible, drinkable and general possession, but sometimes further refinements (as in Vanuatu), or fewer (as just edible and general in western Melanesia).

30942

*ku oblique of common nouns (cf. *ki, *ka)

8801

PAN *ku oblique of common nouns (cf. *ki, *ka)

Formosan
Rukai (Budai)	ku	oblique case marker for common nouns
WMP
Sambal (Botolan)	ko-n	oblique case marker for common nouns
Kapampangan	ku-ŋ	oblique case marker for common nouns

31860

*kua kua kind of bird: pheasant-dove?

10060

POC *kua kua kind of bird: pheasant-dove?

OC
Tolai	kua-kua	a small pigeon or pheasant-dove: Macropygia carteretia and Macropygia nigirostris
Nggela	kua	hen eggs
Lau	kua ~ kuakua	a hen
'Āre'āre	kua ~ kuakua	a fowl
Sa'a	kua	domestic fowl

Note: Also Lau koakoa ‘a hen’. Possibly a chance resemblance Sa'a usually reflects *k- as zero, but retains *k- as a voiceless velar stop in a number of forms.

30382

*kua₁ whatchamacallit, filler for word that cannot be recollected

7464

PWMP *kua₂ whatchamacallit, filler for word that cannot be recollected

WMP
Yami	koa	someone, something, sometime
Ilokano	kuá	term used to replace nouns or roots that the speaker cannot name by word due to lack of memory
Isneg	kuwá	thing, property; also: a decent term for “genitals”, especially of women
Itawis	kwa	whatchamacallit; euphemism for genitals
	ma-ŋwá	to do, to make
Kankanaey	kuá	thing; property, estate, fortune; pudenda, secret parts, secrets, genital organs
Hanunóo	kuwá	what do you call it? what’s his name?
Binukid	kuwa	pause word used to fill in when the speaker cannot think of the right word; word used to avoid saying a taboo word
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kuwa	a word of total generic use that may be substituted for any noun or verb in the language
Kadazan Dusun	kuvo	a circumlocution for someone or something which is not verbalized purposely, or because the name is forgotten; so and so, such and such
Mentawai	kua	say; believe; word
Tontemboan	kua	what someone says or means; utterance
	k<um>ua	to say, invite
Tae'	kua	to say
Makassarese	kua	to speak, to say

7465

PWMP *kua-n quotative

WMP
Yami	koan	to say
	ka-koan	so-and-so, that way
	k<óm>oan	what else to do
Agta (Dupaningan)	kon-	pseudo-verb used to indicate quoted speech
Bontok	kuwá-ni	to say
Ifugaw	kon	particle of interrogation, the question being made to obtain a clarification of a doubt, or to elicit an answer
Ibaloy	kowan	what one says, one’s word; quotative verb, he said, etc.
	i-kowan	to say, tell something
Pangasinan	kuán	said, though (followed by attributive particle or pronoun)
Tagalog	kuwán	an expression of indefiniteness very much used to fill up a gap in speech; equivalent to the English “so-and-so”, some person not named, or “what do you call it” for something not named
Cebuano	kuán	pause word used to fill in when the speaker cannot think of the right word; um, well
Maranao	koan	hesitation form
Mapun	kuan	as for, regarding, concerning
Tausug	kuwan	thingamajig, thingamabob, what’s-it (a word used for whatever one cannot immediately or exactly express, but is usually understood)
Karo Batak	er-kuan	to speak
	eŋ-kuan até	to take offense
Tontemboan	kuan	what is said, thought or intended

Note: Also Mongondow ko-an ‘want to say’.

30383

*kua₂ how?, How is it? What is the matter?

7466

PMP *kua₁ how?, How is it? What is the matter? [doublet: *kuja₂]

WMP
Malagasy	a-hua-na	how? what? (used in answering a call); why? What is the cause of it?
Toba Batak	ma-hua	What is wrong? What is the problem?
	mar-hua	how? What’s the matter? what for? why?
Tae'	umba na-kua	how? what sort of?
	ta-kua-kua	as if; so people say
OC
Nggela	gua	of what sort? how? why?
	gua ni	what about it?
	gua-niga	when?
Lau	ʔua	how?
Sa'a	ʔue	how? why? of course
Arosi	ʔua	how, of what sort, why?
Nakanamanga	e-gua	how? in what manner?

26796

*kuak deep cry; bird with deep cry

3256

PMP *kuak deep cry; bird with deep cry [doublet: *kiak 'squawk']

WMP
Malay	kuak	to low or bellow
Javanese	kok	exclamation of surprise, often combined with irritation or wonderment; a hen's cackle
Sasak	kuak kaok	bird whose cry can be heard before dawn
Mongondow	kuak	cry, shriek, scream
CMP
Manggarai	uak	shout from afar, call with a loud voice
OC
Gedaged	kuák	a bird; it cries a good deal, esp. in the morning

26797

*kuan₁ hamlet; kin-based residential unit

3257

PAN *kuan₁ hamlet; kin-based residential unit

Formosan
Amis	kuan	hamlet
CMP
Atoni	kuan	hamlet

Note: The gloss for this term requires textual citations. Referring to the Amis of Taiwan (Lebar (1975:120)) states that ‘the village (niaroh) is divided into into hamlets or sections (kuan), each with a headman or representative (kakisowal, ‘eloquent speaker’)’. For the Atoni of Timor Schulte Nordholt (1971:94) observes that ‘In central Timor a hundred or even sixty years ago ... a hamlet (kuan) was only inhabited by people of one ‘name’ (kanaf). Such a kuan used to consist of not more than four to ten houses, each occupied by one family.’ Also note Yamdena suan ‘kin-group, division of a village’.

31942

*kuan₂ to speak, talk, say

10159

PWMP *kuan₂ to speak, talk, say [doublet: *kua₂, *kunu]

WMP
Ibaloy	kowan	what one says, one’s word
	i-kowan	to say, tell something
Pangasinan	kuán	said, thought (followed by attributive particle or pronoun)
Tagalog	kuwán	an expression of indefiniteness very much used to fill up a gap in speech, equivalent to the English “so-and-so”, some person not named, or “what do you call it” for something not named
Cebuano	kuán	pause word used to fill in when the speaker cannot think of the right word: um, well
Maranao	koan	hesitation form
Mansaka	kowan	what you may call it; what’s his name (a meaningless hesitation form in speaking)
Karo Batak	er-kuan	to speak, to talk
	er-kuan-kuan	to sit and chat comfortably about nothing in particular
	me-kuan	censorious, fault-finding
	ŋ-kuan-i	to talk to someone
	kuan-kuan-en	expression, phrase
Old Javanese	ma-kon	to tell someone to do something, order
Lolak	kuwon	whatchamacallit

Note: Also Proto-Sangiric *kuən ‘say; it is said’. It is naturally tempting to see this as an affixed form of *kua, but none of the dictionaries from which this material is cited indicate that reflexes of *kuan are anything other than a base.

26798

*kuaw kind of bird and the sound of its call

3258

PAN *kuaw kind of bird and the sound of its call

Formosan
Saisiyat (Taai)	kwaw	large hawk sp.
Amis	kowaw	eagle
Thao	kuaw	a black or dark brown bird with wing span of 70-80 cm. which feeds on lizards and snakes: the serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela hoya Swinhoe
Rukai (Budai)	kwáw	hawk
Paiwan	kuau	crow, kite (bird)
WMP
Kankanaey	kuáo	great yellow passerine bird with black wings
Bikol	kuwaw	owl
	mag-kuwaw	to hoot
Iban	kuaw-kuaw	shouting, calling
Malay	buroŋ kuau	the Argus-pheasant: Argusianus argus, prob. onomatopoetic from its cry
Mongondow	kuau, kuow	a bird, so named from its cry

31766

*kubal callus

9936

PWMP *kubal callus

WMP
Bikol	kubál	a callus
	ma-kubal-án	to have a callus on the body
Cebuano	kúbal ~ kubál	callus; thick skin on a pig
Maranao	kobal	skin, hide, leather
Tausug	kubal	callus
	kubal-an	to form or develop calluses
Tombonuwo	kubal	callus

Note: Also Lun Dayeh kubil ‘an animal skin, hide, leather’, ŋubil ‘to separate the skin of a slaughtered animal from its flesh; separate the meat from the skin with the teeth’, Kelabit kubil ‘leather, hide, as of deer or buffalo’, Balinese kubil ‘the thick part of the tail; a lump of fat; bulges around the eyes; fat, thick (of flesh meat)’.

32588

*kubalan a marine fish sp.

10965

PPh *kubalan a marine fish sp.

WMP
Yami	kovahan	type of fish: banded surgeonfish
Itbayaten	kovaxan	fish sp.: Hepatus triostegus L.
Ilokano	kubálan	species of marine fish
Casiguran Dumagat	kubalan	a species of ocean fish

Note: Also Cebuano kubal-kúbal ‘kind of saltwater fish with thick and tough skin’.

31705

*kub(e)las slip down, subside

9871

PPh *kub(e)las slip down, subside

WMP
Ilokano	kublás	slide down, slip
Mansaka	koblas	to subside, as water

Note: Also Ilokano kubrás ‘so slip, slide down; miss a step and fall’.

31916

*kub(e)li take cover, hide behind

10128

PPh *kub(e)li take cover, hide behind

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kúbli	to take shelter behind, to hide behind (as for a boat to take shelter on the lee side of an island or peninsula, or for a person to hide behind a tree)
Tagalog	kublí	hidden from sight; hidden, unknown
	kubli-hán	refuge; shelter; protection
Cebuano	kublí	take cover, hide behind something to keep from being seen

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution, although if so its absence in languages such as Ilokano is surprising.

31934

*kubet-kubet wrinkled, of the skin, as from age

10150

PPh *kubet-kubet wrinkled, of the skin, as from age

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kubət-kubət	wrinkled (of skin, as that of an old person, or from having the hands in the water for a long time)
Bikol	kubót-kubót	wrinkles in the skin
	mag-kubót-kubót	to wrinkle (the skin)

31840

*kubit touch lightly

10037

PWMP *kubit touch lightly [doublet: *kebit]

WMP
Maranao	koit	touch lightly, pick; stick used to pick (fruit out of reach)
Iban	kubit	nip, pinch
Malay	sa-kubit	a pinch

Note: Also Bintulu kuɓit ‘to pinch’ (< Malay).

31144

*kubkub₁ to surround, lay siege to

9133

PPh *kubkub₁ to surround, lay siege to

WMP
Ilokano	kubkób	to surround, lay siege on
Tagalog	kubkób	inclosed; hedged or fenced in; closely surrounded; besieged; blockaded
	ma-kubkób	to be besieged
	pag-kubkób	siege; the surrounding of a fortified place to capture it
Bikol	kubkób	to place the arms around a seated child while standing at his back in order to warm or protect him
Cebuano	kubkúb	purse seine or impounding net used to catch fishes that run in schools; the school is surrounded with the net, which is then pursed at the bottom
Tboli	kukub	jail; pen; enclosure; to put in jail or an enclosure

9134

PPh *k<um>ubkub to surround, hedge in, besiege

WMP
Ilokano	k<um>ubkób	to surround, lay siege on
Tagalog	k<um>ubkób	to lay siege to; to besiege; to beleaguer; to blockade
Tboli	k<em>ukub	be put in jail or an enclosure

9135

PPh *kubkub-en be surrounded, hedged in, besieged

WMP
Ilokano	kubkub-en	to surround
Tagalog	kubkub-ín	to lay siege to; to besiege; to beleaguer; to blockade

Note: Ilokano kubkób may be a Tagalog loan. With root *-kub₂ ‘surround, encircle’.

31145

*kubkub₂ cover, coating

9136

PMP *kubkub₂ cover, coating

WMP
Mansaka	kobkob	to lie on; to cover with the whole body
Ngaju Dayak	k<al>ukup	cover, coating; lid
Malay (Java)	kukup	face veil
Toba Batak	huphup	covered
	maŋ-huphup-i	to cover, cover up
Old Javanese	kukub	sheet, covering
	a-kukub	covered, under a sheet
	k<in>ukub-an	to cover up
Javanese	k<r>ukub	shade, fabric covering

12635

POC *kukup-i to cover something

OC
Nggela	kuvi	to cover, cover over, as with a blanket

Note: Also Balinese kukab ‘cover’. Dempwolff (1938) combined elements of *kubkub₁ and *kubkub₂ in a single comparison, but these seem clearly to be distinct, although neither is strongly supported. With root *-kub₁ ‘cover’.

31992

*kubkub₃ to dig

10216

PPh *kubkub₃ to dig

WMP
Isneg	kubkúb	to dig
Cebuano	kubkúb	dig away dirt, scooping it with the hands or with a similar motion using an instrument

31767

*kubu field hut in the rice fields

9937

PMP *kubu field hut in the rice fields

WMP
Ilokano	kubó	hut, cottage; kind of mudfish trap
Ayta Abellan	kobo	small shelter
Tagalog	kúbo	a hut shaped like a cube; a one room country dwelling
Tombonuwo	kubu	fortress
Malay	kubu	stockade; semi-permanent fortification, of wooden defenses strengthened with earthwork (masonry forts are kota); small hut or shelter
Karo Batak	ŋ-kubu	to surround
	ŋ-k<er>ubu-i	to surround and attack
Toba Batak	hubu	entrenchment, fortification that the beleaguered inhabitants of a village erect against the enemy
Old Javanese	kuwu	dwelling, housing, quarters, lodgings (often of temporarily erected housing or buildings at feasts or pleasure trips); tents, encampment; but also residence of patih (high official in the court), mantri (king’s counselor, minister)
Javanese	kuwu	village military official in charge of water
	pa-kuwo-n	military encampment; home or estate of the above official; village
Balinese	kubu	free-standing hut, almost always the hut built on his rice fields by the owner
Sasak	kubu	field hut
CMP
Sika	kuwu	small hut in the fields

Note: Also Siraya (Gravius) kuvaw ‘shed, barn’. Possibly a product of borrowing from Malay. The Tagalog word may have been further reshaped both phonologically (stress pattern) and semantically through the influence of the Spanish loanword kúbo ‘cube; a solid with six equal square sides’. The seemingly contradictory indications of ‘field hut’ (defenseless) and ‘fortification’ remain to be elucidated.

31678

*kubuŋ₂ protective covering or enclosure; mosquito net

9839

PPh *kubuŋ₂ protective covering or enclosure; mosquito net

WMP
Ilokano	kúboŋ	mosquito net, bed curtain; kind of bamboo dog trap
	kubóŋ	fence build around a young tree to protect it
	kuboŋ-én	to enclose with a fence
Tagalog	kubóŋ	short mantle used to cover head and shoulders; blanket, shawl or cloth used as a covering; anything, such as a newspaper, banana leaf, etc. used to protect the head from sun or rain
	mag-kubóŋ	to cover the head with something as protection against sun or rain
Bikol	kúboŋ	mosquito net
	mag-kúboŋ	to use a mosquito net
Cebuano	kubúŋ	protective covering; mosquito net; put up a protective covering, make into a protective covering

31768

*kubuq hunchbacked, stoop-shouldered

9938

PPh *kubuq hunchbacked, stoop-shouldered

WMP
Ilokano	kubbó	humpbacked; hunchbacked; with a crooked back
Cebuano	kúbuʔ	stoop-shouldered; for the posture to be hunched over

31716

*kubut₁ keep a mistress (?)

9882

PPh *kubut₂ keep a mistress (?)

WMP
Itbayaten	kovot	idea of marrying
	ka-kovot	spouse, marriage partner
	mi-chovot	to become spouse to each other
Cebuano	kubút	keep a mistress; wed someone on his deathbed by just having the couple hold hands and blessing them

33933

*kubut₂ wrinkled

12769

PPh *kubut₃ wrinkled

WMP
Ibaloy	kobot	to be wrinkled, as s.t. dried in the sun, skin of old people, animals
Bikol	kubót-kubót	wrinkles in the skin

30324

(Formosan only)

*kuCkuC roll up, curl up tightly

7295

PAN *kuCkuC roll up, curl up tightly

Formosan
Pazeh	mu-kusukus	roll up something light or thin such as paper, or sleeves
Puyuma	kukuT	roll up, curl up in the fetal position
	k<əm>ukuT	roll into a ball to sleep

30459

*kuCux head louse

7640

PAN *kuCux head louse

Formosan
Kavalan	qutu	head louse
	mqi-qutu	to delouse with one’s fingers
	sa-qutu	to have head lice
Saisiyat	koso	louse (head)
Pazeh	kusu	head louse
Amis	koto	louse, lice
Thao	kucu	head louse, chicken mite
	kit-kucu-n	to have lice in the hair
Bunun	kutu	louse (of head)
Bunun (Isbukun)	kutu	head louse
Bunun (Takituduh)	kutuh	head louse
Hoanya	usu	louse
Tsou	ʔcuu	louse (of head)
Kanakanabu	kucu	louse (of head)
Saaroa	kucuʔu	head louse
Puyuma	kuTu	headlouse
Paiwan	kutsu	louse (of head)

7641

PMP *kutu₁ head louse; sparks from a fire; water striker (insect that walks on water)

WMP
Yami	koto	head louse
Itbayaten	koto	head louse
	mihi-ñoto	to remove lice
Ilokano	kúto	louse (when young and small, called kámay)
	agi-kúto	to delouse oneself
Agta (Dupaningan)	kútu	louse
Isneg	kóto	louse
	ma-xóto	to be abundantly provided with vermin and refractory to any kind of treatment
Itawis	kútu	head louse
Malaweg	kútu	louse
Arta	utu	louse
Bontok	kútu	head louse
Ifugaw	kútu	louse in the hair (of women especially, because of their long hair)
Ifugaw (Batad)	ūtu	a louse or flea, a generic term for parasitic insects infecting warm-blooded animals and humans; a head louse, infesting the hair of humans
Casiguran Dumagat	kuto	louse, lice
	kúto-kúto	water strider
Ibaloy	koto	head louse in humans; also related species that infest animal fur
	e-ŋoto	infested with lice
	koto ni shontog	cattle that roam in mountain pasture (‘lice of the mountains’)
Pangasinan	kotó	head louse
Ayta Abellan	kotoh	head louse
Ayta Maganchi	koto	louse
Kapampangan	kútu	louse
Tagalog	kúto	louse; a small, wingless insect that infests the hair or bodies of people
Bikol	kúto	hair louse
	kúto sa tanóm	aphid
Hanunóo	kútu	hair or head louse
Masbatenyo	kúto	head lice, cootie, pediculosis
	para-hi-ŋúto	lice catcher … refers to someone who regularly catches and kills lice in someone else’s hair
Inati	koto	louse
Aklanon	kúto	louse, lice
	hi-ŋutó	to take out lice from someone’s hair
Waray-Waray	kúto	louse
Cebuano	kútu	head louse; be infested with head lice
Maranao	koto	lice, esp. head lice
	koto a aso	flea (‘dog louse’)
	koto-koto	spark
	koto-koto	water spider (= water strider?)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kutu	head lice
	kutu-kutu	flying sparks from a fire
Mansaka	koto	louse
Tiruray	kutew	a black hair louse; spark from a fire; to send off sparks
	kutew ituʔ	a flea (‘dog louse’)
Klata	kutto	louse
Mapun	kutu	flea, louse (as on human hair, or on an animal)
	kutu-kutu bataŋ	a tick
Yakan	kutu	louse, lice
	kutu asu	flea (‘dog louse’)
Tboli	kutu	Pediculus humanus, head lice; flea; to have head lice or fleas
	kutu él	aquatic bug; black, tiny, fast backswimmer with a painful bite
Tausug	kutu	flea, louse (as on human hair or animal’s flesh)
Kadazan Dusun	kutu	louse, lice
Ida'an Begak	kutu	lice
Bisaya (Limbang)	kutu	head louse
Belait	kuteow	louse
Lun Dayeh	kutuh	hair lice
Kelabit	kutuh	head louse, louse in the hair
Sa'ban	təw	head louse
Sebop	kutu	head louse
Kenyah (Long Wat)	kutəw	louse
Kenyah (Long Anap)	kutu	head louse
Murik	kutoʔ	louse
Kayan (Long Atip)	kutoʔ	head louse
Kayan (Uma Bawang)	kutoʔ	head louse
Kiput	kutəw	head louse, hair louse
Bintulu	kutəw	louse
Melanau (Mukah)	kutəw	louse
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)	kutəw	louse
Bukat	kutu	louse, flea
Lahanan	kutow	louse, flea
Tunjung	kutu	louse
Dohoi	kuhtu	louse
Ba'amang	kutu	louse
Paku	kutu	louse
Ma'anyan	kutu	louse
Samihim	kutu	louse
Iban	kutu	louse, flea
	kutu api	sparks
	kutu lelabi	water insect, unid. (‘water boatman’?)
Salako	gutu	louse
Cham	katau	louse
Roglai (Northern)	kutəw	head louse
Malay	kutu	generic for parasitic biting insects in contrast to non-biting parasitic insects (tuma); these include the common flea, the bedbug, cattle ticks, the rice bug, the louse that worries fowls, and the insects infesting the bilges of neglected boats; (fig.) hanger-on, human parasite
	kutu embun	night prowlers (‘dew bugs’)
	kutu pajak	bazaar loafers, beach combers
Talaud	utu	head louse
Gayō	kutu	head louse
	kutu ni asu	flea (‘dog louse’)
Simalur	utu	(head) louse
	utu-n asu	canine flea
Karo Batak	kutu	head louse
	kutu biaŋ	flea (‘dog louse’)
Toba Batak	hutu	louse
Enggano	e-hũkũ	head louse
Lampung	kutu	bedbug
Sundanese	kutu	louse (in general), esp. a grown louse; flea
	kutu-kutu	insects
Javanese	kutu-kutu ~ ke-kutu	(the class of) small insects
Balinese	kutu	louse (head, body)
Sangir	kutu	louse
	tau kutu	dwarf (‘louse person’)
Tontemboan	kutu	louse in the hair
Mongondow	kutu	louse, head louse
	kutu i uŋkuʔ	flea (‘dog louse’)
	kutu im batu	used in explaining something very trifling, or when one humbles oneself (‘stone louse’)
Ponosakan	kutu	louse
Uma	kutu	louse
Bare'e	tuku ^<M	head louse
Tae'	kutu	head louse
	kutu manuk	chicken louse
	si-kutu	to delouse one another
	pe-kutu-i	to delouse
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*kutu	louse
Mori Atas	kusu	head louse, chicken louse
Padoe	kusu	louse
Bungku	kutu	louse
Koroni	kutu	louse
Wawonii	kutu	chicken louse
Moronene	kutu	louse
Buginese	utu	louse
Makassarese	kutu	louse, flea
	ak-kutu	seek out lice, pick lice from the hair
	pa-kutu	someone who is skilled at delousing, louse-seeker
Bonerate	kutu	louse
Popalia	kutu	louse
Palauan	kud	louse
	kədu-l	his/her louse
CMP
Bimanese	hudu	louse
Manggarai	hutu	head louse, Pediculus capitis
Rembong	kutu	head louse, Pediculus capitis
Ngadha	kutu	head louse
	dala kutu	Evening star (‘louse star’)
	kutu tana	many people engaged in the same activity, rushing this way and that, to and fro
Sika	utu	head louse
Lamboya	utu	louse
Anakalangu	wutu	louse
Kambera	wutu	flea, louse
	wutu tau	louse on a person
	wutu ahu	dog louse
	wutu uraŋu	small insects that fly about in the evening during the rainy season (‘rain lice’)
Hawu	udu	louse
Dhao/Ndao	udu	louse
Rotinese	utu	louse
Atoni	hutu	louse
Tetun	utu	louse
	rai utu-n	earthworm (‘earth louse’)
Galoli	utu	louse
Erai	utu-(n)	louse
Talur	utu	louse
Tugun	utu	louse
Kisar	uku	louse
East Damar	utu	louse
West Damar	utho	louse
Leti	utu	louse
Luang	utu	louse
Wetan	kuti	louse
Selaru	ut	louse
Kola	kut	louse
Ujir	kut	louse
Dobel	ʔutu	louse
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)	kut	louse
Watubela	kutu	louse
Teluti	utu	louse
Gah	kutu	louse
Alune	kutu	louse
Saparua	utu	louse
Hitu	utu	louse
Nusa Laut	uʔu-l	louse
Batu Merah	utu	louse
Amblau	uru	louse
Tifu	koto	louse
Sula	kotu	head louse
Sekar	kúti	louse
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	ut	louse
Gimán	kut	louse
Buli	ut	head louse
	fune ni ut	dog louse, flea
Misool (Coast)	ut	louse
Mayá	ꞌu³t	louse
Biga	wut	louse
Minyaifuin	ut	louse
Irarutu	ut	louse
Moor	kúʔa	louse
Wandamen	utu	louse
Ron	uk	louse
Numfor	uk	louse
	uk nàf	dog louse, flea
	uk	louse
Pom	utu	louse
Marau₁	utu	louse
Ansus	utu	louse
Ambai	ul-utu	louse
Papuma	utu	louse
Munggui	utu	louse
Woi	utu	louse
Kurudu	u	louse
OC
Nauna	kut	louse
Lou	kut	louse
Penchal	kut	louse
Loniu	kut	louse
Nali	kut	louse
Andra	gut	louse
Ahus	kut	louse
Papitalai	kut	louse
Drehet	kuk	louse
Sori	u	louse
Bipi	kut	louse
Wuvulu	fo-uʔu	louse
Aua	fua-uʔu	louse
Kaniet	uu	louse
Tanga	an ut	a louse
Tolai	ut	louse (utu in compounds)
Arop	kut	louse
Biliau	ut	louse
Lakalai	la-utu	louse
Mengen	kutu	louse
Sobei	kute	louse
Tarpia	kuʔ	louse
Kis	ku-kut	louse
Ali	wut	louse
Wogeo	kut	louse
Manam	kutu paopao	louse (Böhm 1975)
	ʔutu	louse (Blust n.d. (1975))
Sio	kutu	louse
Takia	ut	louse
Mbula	kut	louse
Watut	gur	louse
Wampar	gor	louse
Gapapaiwa	kutu-geri	louse
Hula	ɣu	louse
Motu	utu	louse
Pokau	uku	louse
Mekeo (East)	uʔu	louse
Kilivila	kutu	head louse
Dobuan	ʔutu	flea
Molima	ʔutu	louse, flea
Selau	wut	louse
Piva	ghutsu	louse
Uruava	utu	louse
Luangiua	ʔuku	louse
Mono-Alu	ūtu	louse
Kokota	gutu	louse
Hoava	γutu	louse
Roviana	gutu	louse
Zabana	ɣutu	louse
Bugotu	gutu	louse
Nggela	gutu	louse
Marau₂	ʔu	louse
Lau	ʔū	louse, flea
Toqabaqita	ʔuu	louse
	afu-ʔuu	look for lice in the hair, delouse
'Āre'āre	ū	louse, flea
Sikaiana	kutu	louse
Gilbertese	te uti	louse, lice
	uti-n te man	animal lice
Kosraean	kut	louse; become infested with lice
Marshallese	kij	louse; bacteria; bug; flea; germ; parasite
Chuukese	kúú	louse, flea
Puluwat	kúúw	louse
Woleaian	giusiu	louse, vermin
Pileni	kutu	louse
Mota	wut(u)	louse
Vatrata	wuʔ	louse
Mosina	wut	louse
Lakona	wut	louse
Merig	wut	louse
Cape Cumberland	hutu	louse
Piamatsina	hutu	louse
Nokuku	kutu-	louse
Malmariv	utu	louse
Lametin	ut	louse
Mafea	utu	louse
Amblong	utu	louse
Aore	ut	louse
Araki	huru	louse
Northeast Ambae	kutu	louse
Raga	xutu	louse
Apma	kut	louse
Atchin	no-ut	louse
Uripiv	na-ut	louse
Lingarak	na-ɣut	louse
Leviamp	na-xət	louse
Avava	a-ut	louse
Axamb	na-xur	louse
Maxbaxo	kúti	louse
Southeast Ambrym	ut	louse
Toak	ut	louse
Bonkovia	suru	louse
Nakanamanga	kutu	louse
Lelepa	kutu	louse
Efate (South)	kut	louse
Ura	wit	louse
Sie	no-ɣut	louse
Lenakel	kur	louse
Anejom	ne-γet	louse
Canala	kɨtɨ	louse
Rotuman	ʔufu	louse
Wayan	kutu	head louse, head lice
	vā-kutu	have lice, be infested with lice, be lousy
	kutu ni tui	flea (louse of dog)
Fijian	kutu	flea, crab louse, Pediculus pubis
	kutu-kutu	very small insects; lousy
	kutu ni manumanu	a flea (of dog)
Tongan	kutu	louse, lice
	kutu-a	infested with lice, lousy
	kutu-fisi	flea (jumping louse)
Niue	kutu	louse, flea
Futunan	kutu	louse, lice
	kutu-a	infested with lice, lousy
Samoan	ʔutu	louse
	ʔutu-a	(of hair), be infested with lice, lousy
	ʔutu-fiti	flea (jumping lice)
Tuvaluan	kutu	louse
Kapingamarangi	gudu	head lice; aphids
Nukuoro	gudu	louse (head), or similar exoparasite of plants or animals (e.g. bird lice, scale insects, sap-feeding beetles, darkling beetles, etc.)
Rennellese	kutu	louse, bird louse, mite, leech, tiny insects of various kinds, Mallophaga
	kutu-a	be lousy, infested with lice
	kutu-ina	be lousy, infested with lice
	kutu mea	a large leech (‘red leech’)
Anuta	kutu	head louse
Rarotongan	kutu	louse, weevil, any small insect injurious to food
	kutu papa	body lice, the crab louse, phthirius pubis (‘flat louse’)
	kutu moa	fowl or chicken lice
Maori	kutu	louse; vermin of any kind infesting human beings
Hawaiian	ʔuku	louse, flea

7642

PAN *ma-kuCu (gloss uncertain)

Formosan
Paiwan	ma-kutsu	to be deloused

7643

PMP *ma-kutu having lice, lice-infested

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-koto	infested with lice
Kapampangan	ma-kútu	lice-infested
Lun Dayeh	me-kutuh	having (hair) lice

7644

PWMP *ma-ŋutu to delouse

WMP
Ibaloy	me-ŋoto	to pick head lice
Kapampangan	ma-ŋutu	to delouse
Bahasa Indonesia	me-ŋutu-i	seek out lice, pick lice from the hair
Tontemboan	me-ŋutu-ŋutu-keʔ	always searching for lice
Mongondow	mo-ŋutu	seek out lice, delouse
Note: Also Karo Batak ŋ-kutu-i ‘delouse someone’, Toba Batak maŋ-hutu-i ‘delouse someone’.

7645

PWMP *maR-kutu to delouse

WMP
Itawis	mak-kútu	to delouse
Gayō	be-kutu	seek lice, delouse
Tontemboan	ma-kutu	to delouse
Buginese	mak-kutu	to delouse

7646

PWMP *kutu-an to delouse someone

WMP
Ilokano	(i)-kutu-an	to delouse someone
Casiguran Dumagat	kutu-an	to pick lice out of the hair
Tausug	kutuh-an	to delouse someone
Tontemboan	kutu-an	the place in the hair where one seeks lice
Tae'	kutu-an	full of lice, lousy
Makassarese	kutu-aŋ	to have lice

7647

PWMP *kutu-en to have lice

WMP
Tagalog	kutúh-in	to be lousy, infested with lice
Kadazan Dusun	kutuv-on	to have lice

7648

PWMP *k<in>utu lice-infested

WMP
Mapun	k<in>utu	to be or become infested with lice
Tontemboan	k<in>utu	afflicted with lice, lice-infested

7649

PAN *k<um>uCu to delouse

Formosan
Paiwan	k<m>utsu	to delouse

7650

PMP *k<um>utu to delouse

WMP
Tontemboan	k<um>utu	to delouse, seek lice in hair

Note: Also Favorlang/Babuza ocho, Saaroa kucoʔo, Siraya conto ‘louse (of head), Long Lamai Penan gutəuʔ ‘louse’, Narum gutew ‘head louse’, Miri gutauh ‘louse’, Ngaju Dayak guti ‘louse (on the head)’, Rejang gutaw ‘body lice’, Banggai kutuk ‘louse, flea’. The absence of nasal substitution in the Batak reflexes of *ma-ŋutu is unexplained.

31882

*kude hourglass drum

10089

POC *kude hourglass drum

OC
Vitu	kude	(hourglass) drum
Kilenge	kure	slitgong drum
Bulu	kude	(hourglass) drum
Lakalai	la-kude	hourglass drum

Note: Also Patpatar kudu ‘drum’, Tolai kudu ‘a long drum, the end of which is covered with the skin of an iguana’, Mota kore ‘slitgong drum’. This comparison was proposed by Osmond and Ross (1998:109).

26799

*kudem darkened by clouds, overcast

3259

PAN *kudem darkened by clouds, overcast

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	kuTem	cloud
OC
Nggela	kuro	become dim, be dimmed, dark

Note: With root *-dem₁ ‘dark; overcast’.

29862

*kuden clay cooking pot

6510

PAN *kuden clay cooking pot [doublet: *kudin]

Formosan
Amis	kuren	pottery (Vakon dial.) (Chen 1988:111)
Bunun	kudun	clay cooking pot
WMP
Kapampangan	kúran	large pot used for cooking rice
Bikol	kúron	clay cooking pot; the meaning may be extended by some speakers to ‘pottery’
Hanunóo	kurún	earthenware pot
Masbatenyo	kúron	clay pot (refers especially to the kind used for cooking)
Aklanon	kúeon	earthenware pot (for cooking)
Hiligaynon	kúlon	clay cooking pot
Cebuano	kúlun	cooking pot made of clay; to cook in this kind of pot; to make into this kind of pot
Maranao	koden	cooking pot
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kuzen	cooking pot
Mansaka	koron	clay cooking pot
Tboli	kulen	pot of earth or metal
Kadazan Dusun	kuon	earthenware pot
Tombonuwo	kuron	cooking pot
Tarakan	kulan	pot
Ida'an Begak	kuron	rice pot
Kelabit	kuden	earthenware pot
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kurən	kind of copper cooking pot formerly in use
Toba Batak	hudon	pot
	tano hudon	clay (lit. ‘potting earth’)
Old Javanese	kuren	husband, wife, partner, consort
	sa-kuren	married man and wife (lit. ‘one cooking pot’)
	pa-kuren	be married, live as husband and wife
Balinese	kuren	household; family
	kuren-an	spouse (lit. ‘one cooking pot’, a more refined word than somah (‘one house’)
Mongondow	kuyon	cooking pot
Totoli	kulon	cooking pot
Uma	kura	cooking pot
Bare'e	kura	pot of fired clay in which rice and other food is cooked; bark vessel in which salt is boiled out of strong brine
	kura labu	iron cooking pot
CMP
Kambera	wuruŋu	pot, vessel
	wuru tana	earthenware pot (native)
	wuru bàhi	iron pot
Selaru	ura-re	cooking pot
Yamdena	kudan	earthenware cooking pot
Kamarian	uren	earthenware cooking pot
Alune	ulene	earthenware cooking pot
Asilulu	ule	pot
	ule lale	clay cooking pot
	ule liti	wok, esp. of brass
Boano₂	ulen	pot
Buruese	kuren	large earthenware jar with small mouth and round bottom
Tifu	kuren	clay cooking pot
	kurən	clay cooking pot
SHWNG
Buli	ulan	pot, pan
	ulan rakrak	earthenware pot
	ulan besi	iron pan
Numfor	uren	earthenware cooking pot; clay used to make pots
Waropen	urano	cooking pot
OC
Nauna	kul	clay cooking pot
Lou	kur	clay cooking pot
Loniu	ku	clay cooking pot
Nali	kun	clay cooking pot
Papitalai	kur	clay cooking pot
Levei	kwiŋ	clay cooking pot
Bipi	kux	clay cooking pot
Lusi	ulo	pottery vessel
Kove	ulo	cooking pot
Watut	gu	pot
Motu	uro	earthenware pot
Bugotu	kuro	boil in a saucepan
Canala	kɨrɛ	pot
Fijian	kuro	cooking pot of clay
Tongan	kulo	pot, cauldron (borrowed from Fiji)
Samoan	ulo	pot, pan

Note: Also Thao kudun ‘clay cooking pot’, apparently a loanword from Bunun, Subanen/Subanun gulen ‘a large jar’, evidently a loan from Tboli, Tiruray kureŋ ‘a ricepot; the nuclear family’. This widely, if somewhat sparsely distributed comparison, provides the key linguistic evidence that a continuous tradition of pottery-making connects speakers of Proto-Austronesian, c. 5500-6000 BP with Pacific populations as far east as western Polynesia, about three millennia later. In many areas pottery has been lost, and with it a term for ‘clay cooking pot’. This is particularly true in the Pacific, including scattered areas in Melanesia and all of Polynesia, although it is clear that Proto-Polynesian speakers had pottery, and lost it within a few centuries of settling western Polynesia. Pottery-making was also lost occasionally, but much less commonly, in insular Southeast Asia.

For Formosan aborigines, Chen (1988:110) reports the manufacture of pottery among the Bunun, Tsou, Paiwan, Amis and Yami, adding that only the last two groups still made it in the late 1960s, but he does not distinguish cases in which there is positive evidence for its absence from cases in which it simply unreported. Although pottery leaves perhaps the single most salient signature in the archaeological record of any item of material culture, owing both to its durability and its sheer quantity, the available linguistic evidence sheds no light on such centrally important archaeological topics as the origin of the Lapita decorative style.

In several Western Malayo-Polynesian languages, including Tiruray, Old Javanese, Balinese, Southern Toraja and Makassarese, a reflex of *kuden, either simple or affixed, refers not only to clay cooking pot, but also to such concepts as spouse, household, and the nuclear family. These forms suggest that the clay cooking pot – almost certainly the vessel in which rice was boiled for the daily meal – became a metaphor of commensality, and hence of the union of man and wife in the nuclear family unit.

31216

*kudeŋ clay cooking pot

9249

PAN *kudeŋ clay cooking pot [doublet: *kuden]

Formosan
Amis	koreŋ	large earthen vessel for salted meat, water, or wine
WMP
Tiruray	kureŋ	a ricepot; the nuclear family

29863

*kudin clay cooking pot

6511

PMP *kudin clay cooking pot [doublet: *kuden]

WMP
Karo Batak	kudin	ricepot, cooking pot
	kudin tanah	earthenware cooking pot
Sangir	kuriŋ	native earthenware cooking pot
Tae'	kurin	cooking pot of fired clay
	kurin bassi	iron cooking pot
	maʔ-kurin misa	have one’s own household
	paʔ-kurin	someone who makes or sells cooking pots
	saŋ-kurin	a cooking pot full of food; spouse, endearing expression by a woman for her husband or a man for his wife
Buginese	uriŋ	cooking pot
	uriŋ-kuriŋ	small cooking pot
Makassarese	uriŋ	cooking pot
	uriŋ bassi	iron cooking pot
	uriŋ butta	earthenware cooking pot
	pa-uriŋ-uriŋ-an	to separate, of a married couple
CMP
Buruese	kurin	vase

26800

*kudis scurfy skin disease; scabies

3260

PAN *kudis scurfy skin disease; scabies [doublet: *kuris₁]

Formosan
Amis	kodic	mange; skin disease
WMP
Ilokano	kúdis	skinned, flayed, excoriated, peeled
Malay	kudis	scurfy skin disease, esp. true itch or Scabies, but also used of mange and shingles
Old Javanese	kuḍis-en	scurvy, scabby
Javanese	kuḍis	scabies
	kuḍis-en	have or get scabies
Sasak	kudis	a skin disease (ichthyosis)

Note: Also Ilokano kúrad ‘contagious affection of the skin characterized by the appearance of discolored whitish patches covered with vesicles or powdery scales, and at times itching greatly; a kind of tetter or ringworm’, Karo Batak kudil ‘scabies’, kudil-en ‘suffer from scabies’, Javanese kuḍas ‘ringworm’, Sasak kurék ‘scabies, itch’.

26802

*kudkud hoof, lower leg of an ungulate

3262

PAN *kudkud hoof, lower leg of an ungulate

Formosan
Kavalan	ququz	animal calf, lower part of the limb between knee and ankle, including shin and calf
Pazeh	kudukut	heel
Thao	kuskus	foot, leg; hoof
Siraya	kurkur	hoof
Paiwan	kuzkuz-an	heel
WMP
Yami	kokod	animal foot that has been cut off (as chicken feet)
Itbayaten	kokod	hoof, foot of animals
Ilokano	kúkod	shank, shin of animals
Isneg	kúkud	hoof of Ungulata
Bikol	kukód	the nails of animals such as the water buffalo or pig
Kelabit	kukud	foot, leg
Acehnese	kukuët	lower leg of an animal from the hoof to the ankle
Proto-Lampungic	*kukut	leg, foot
CMP
Yamdena	kukut	hoof, claw of animals

Note: Also Proto-Rukai *koko ‘leg’, Acehnese gukuët ‘lower leg of an animal from the hoof to the ankle’. This root apparently is distinct from *kuSkuS ‘claw, finger-, toenail’, though reflexes of the latter also mean ‘hoof’ in various languages (Casiguran Dumagat kuku ‘finger-, toenail; hoof’, Malay kuku ‘claw, talon, hoof, finger-, toenail’). In some of these, the meaning ‘hoof’ is clearly an extension of the core meaning which could only have occurred after the European introduction of hoofed animals (e.g., Nggela gugu ‘finger-, toenail; hoof’).

31679

*kuDkuD to scrape, rasp, grate, as in grating coconuts

9840

PMP *kuDkuD to scrape, rasp, grate, as in grating coconuts

WMP
Itbayaten	kodkod	idea of grating
Ilokano	kudkúd	scratching instrument; scratching
	ag-kudkúd	to scratch oneself
Tagalog	kudkód	grated
Cebuano	kudkúd	grind into fine pieces by rubbing or scraping; file off metal to clean it or thin it before sharpening it (as in scraping rust off a blade)
Maranao	kokor	to grate
	kokor-aʔ	grater
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kudkud	of a wild pig, to burrow; to make a burrow
Ngaju Dayak	kukur	grater, rasp
	ma-ŋukur	to grate, to rasp
Malay	kukur	rasping; scraping down with a rough surface
Karo Batak	ŋ-kukur	to grate or rasp
	peŋ-kukur	coconut rasp
Toba Batak	maŋ-hurhur	to rasp, grate, rub on a grater, as coconut when making curry
Sundanese	ŋukur	to grate, as a coconut or young papaya
Javanese	kukur-kukur	to scratch an itch
	ŋukur	to scratch something
Mongondow	kukud	to scratch, scrape
	mo-kukud	scratched, scraped

9841

PWMP *kuDkuD-an grater, rasp, as for coconuts

WMP
Cebuano	kudkur-án	coconut shredder
Toba Batak	hurhur-an	grater (as for coconut)
Javanese	kukur-an	a scratched place

9842

PPh *kudkud-én to scratch, scrape off

WMP
Itbayaten	kodkor-en	to grate something; coconut or anything which is to be grated
Ilokano	kudkud-én	to scratch an itch; pet an animal
Tagalog	kudkur-ín	to grate (coconuts or the like)

10178

POC *kukur mussel sp. or spp. used as food grater or scraper

OC
Kove	kuku	little black horse mussel
Takia	kuk	shellfish: Anadara sp,; cockle shell
Nggela	gugu	species of mollusc, pelecypod
Arosi	kuku	a small bivalve mollusc, Arca sp.
Fijian	kuku	a kind of mussel
Tongan	kuku	pink-fleshed mussel (shellfish)
Niue	kuku	small black mussel
Samoan	ʔuʔu	mollusc (Modiola sp.), the shell of which is used by women to split pandanus leaves
Rarotongan	kuku	edible mussel: Mytilus edulis

Note: The Oceanic members of this comparison were first noted by Lichtenberk and Osmond (1998:161).

33879

*kudúg stamping of feet

12699

PPh *kudúg stamping of feet

WMP
Ilokano	kudúg	stampede; stomping of the feet
Bikol	kuróg-kudóg	the sound of stamping feet

26854

*ku(n)dul dull, blunt

3317

PWMP *ku(n)dul dull, blunt

WMP
Lampung	kudul	blunt
Bare'e	kuyu	dull, blunt (of tools, weapons)
Mandar	kundu	dull, blunt (of parang, knife)
	ma-kundu	dull, blunt (of parang, knife)

31769

*kuduŋ head cover for women

9939

PWMP *kuduŋ head cover for women

WMP
Cebuano	kurúŋ ~ kúruŋ	veil or any other head covering used by women in church
Malay (Jakarta)	kə-kudoŋ	to wear over the head
Old Javanese	kuḍuŋ-kuḍuŋ	cover, wrapping, veil, shroud
	a-kuḍuŋ-kuḍuŋ	covered, wrapped in a veil (blanket, etc.)
Balinese	kuḍuŋ	head-covering of women, veil; cap
Sasak	kuduŋ	cover (in general); also cork, etc.; to close, cover something

Note: With root *-duŋ ‘to shelter, protect’.

26801

*kugem hold in the fist

3261

PWMP *kugem hold in the fist

WMP
Cebuano	kugúm	hold on to something with the fingernails or claws
Chamorro	hugom	squeeze with arms or legs, as in wrestling

Note: With root *-gem ‘grasp in the fist’.

31780

*kuhit tap, touch, or reach in with the finger

9955

PWMP *kuhit tap, touch, or reach in with the finger

WMP
Tagalog	kúhit	extraction or act of extracting, with the index finger or some slender tool, a portion of something sticky such as paste or glue, or even of cake, etc.
	k<um>úhit	to extract with the index finger
Cebuano	kúhit	to poke, jab, touch something with the fingers or something long to remove or obtain it; touch someone by curling the fingers to attract his attention; hook used in embroidery to catch hold of threads
Maranao	koit	touch lightly, pick; stick used to pick
Malay	kuit	a quick stroke or jerky move of the fingertip; specifically an inward finger-jerk with one finger, in contradistinction to the movement of more than one finger, or to an outward finger-jerk
Karo Batak	ŋ-kuit	to touch something

30235

*kuhul edible snail sp.

7103

PWMP *kuhul edible snail sp.

WMP
Tagalog	kuhól	a species of edible snail
Bikol	kuhól	small black, edible freshwater snail found in fields and canals
	mag-kuhól	to collect such snails
Old Javanese	kul	a certain mollusc (mussel, oyster, clam?)
	k<um>ul	like a kul, to clam up
Javanese	kul	a variety of snail
Balinese	ka-kul	snail, slug (for Ca- reduplication in animal names cf. ka-kupu next to Malay kupu-kupu ‘butterfly’, la-lintah next to Malay lintah ‘leech’, la-lépan ‘millipede’ next to Malay lipan ‘centipede’, etc.)

Note: For Ca- reduplication in animal names cf. ka-kupu next to Malay kupu-kupu ‘butterfly’, la-lintah next to Malay lintah ‘leech’, la-lépan ‘millipede’ next to Malay lipan ‘centipede’, etc.

30384

*kuja how?, how is it? what is the matter?

7467

PAN *kuja how?, how is it? what is the matter?

Formosan
Thao	a-pia-kuza-n	what, how?
	kuza-n	what?
	la-kuza	amount, quantity
	mia-kuza	what, how?
Bunun	kua	to matter, be of concern to someone
Puyuma	kuda	do (occupation)
	ka-kuda	what?
	k<m>uda-kuda	how?
	mar-kuda-kuda	different, varied
	si-kuda-[y]an	manners, traditions
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	k<em>uda zi	why?
	k<em>uda-kuda	how to do? what do do? what kind of?
Paiwan	ka-kudá-n	custom, law
	r<m>a-kudá-n	when? at what time (to go somewhere)?
Paiwan (Western)	ma-kuda-kuda	how much?

7468

PMP *kuja how?, how is it? what is the matter? [doublet: *kua₂]

WMP
Dumpas	k<om>uro	how?, how many?
Kadazan Dusun	kuo	what for? why?
	kuo-z-on	what to do?
	mo-ŋuo	going where?
	no-kuo	what is the matter? what is wrong?
	tokuu-kuo	which one? what kind?
Lun Dayeh	kudəh	why?
	nə-kudəh	what happened?
Kelabit	kudeh	why?
Kenyah	kuda	how?
	kuda kado	how many?
Karo Batak	kuga	how? what sort of?
Nias	uga	how much, how many?
Balinese	kuda	how much/many? which (hour)?
Sasak	kura	how?
	eŋ-kura	how?
	gen pe-kura	what would you like to do?
Tonsea	kura	how?
Tondano	kura	do something, act (Sneddon 1978)
Uma	kuja	how much?, how many?
Bare'e	kuja	what kind of person?

12576

POC *kuca how?

OC
Kwaio	ʔuutaa	what? how? like what?
Lau	ʔuta-a	how? in what way? of what sort?
Kwara'ae	fa-ʔuta	how?

7469

PAN *k<in>uja what has been said/done (to cause someone to react)?

Formosan
Thao	k<in>uza	what was said (to cause someone to react)?
WMP
Kadazan Dusun	k<in>uo	what has been done?

7470

PAN *k<um>uja (gloss uncertain)

Formosan
Thao	k<m>uza	what are you saying?
Paiwan	k<m>uda	why? to do what? what is wrong?
WMP
Tondano	k<um>ura	how? (Sneddon 1978)
Tontemboan	k<um>ura-kura	why?

7471

PAN *ma-kuja what are you doing? what’s happening?

Formosan
Puyuma	ma-kuda	why? how?
Paiwan	ma-kuda	how is it? what’s happening?
WMP
Bare'e	ma-kuja	how? why?
	mo-kuja	what are you doing? what are you busy with?

7472

PWMP *ma-ŋuja (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Lun Dayeh	ŋudəh	what?
Kelabit	ŋudeh	why?
Tontemboan	ma-ŋura	perhaps, possibly, who knows?

7473

PWMP *saŋ-kuja how much/how many?

WMP
Kadazan Dusun	soŋ-kuo	how much/how many?
Uma	haŋ-kuja	how much/how many?
Bare'e	saŋ-kuja	how much/how many?

Note: Also Wayan kuya ‘be in what condition or state? be how? Overlaps in meaning with vakaava how? in what manner or condition?, but kuya normally questions condition or state’. PAn *kuja is one of the most difficult morphemes to define. It was clearly an interrogative of some type, but seems to have been either very vaguely defined, or multifunctional, as can be seen from the number of morphologically derived forms and their semantic diversity in a number of languages. One affixed form of this word (PWMP *saŋ-kuja) appears to have been semantically identical to the unaffixed interrogative of quantity, *pija ‘how much/how many?’.

26805

*kuk sound of sob, croak, etc.

3265

PMP *kuk sound of sob, croak, etc.

WMP
Kankanaey	kok	shriek, screech, scream
Ngaju Dayak	kok	sound of sobbing, gulping
Malay	kok	snigger
CMP
Manggarai	kuk	croak of a frog, sound of a fart
OC
Sa'a	kuu	bark at

Note: The vowel of Kankanaey, Ngaju Dayak kok is irregular.

31697

*kuka crab (generic)

9862

POC *kuka crab (generic)

OC
Tanga	kuka	crayfish; ritual form of the ordinary word for crayfish
Tolai	kuka	a generic word for crabs, Cancer spp.
Arosi	kuka	a crab (generic)
Wayan	kuka	crab, small edible hairy grapsid with black carapace and red claws; found in mangrove swamps
Fijian	kuka	a small red and black mangrove crab
Tongan	kuka	kind of crab
Samoan	ʔuʔa	common mangrove crab (Sesarma sp.)

Note: Also Toqabaqita uɁa ‘generic for a variety of crabs (excludes land hermit crab and coconut crab). A slightly different form of this comparison was proposed by Pawley (2011:174-175), who glossed it ‘mudcrab, including Sesarma sp. or spp., living in mangrove forest and mudflats’. However, the more specific gloss is supported to date only by Central Pacific languages.

31842

*kukkuk to cluck, of chickens

10039

PWMP *kukkuk to cluck, of chickens

WMP
Ilokano	kokkók	knock; cluck
	ag-kokkók	to cluck (chickens); to knock
Tagalog	kukók	cackling of fowls; gobble, the noise a turkey makes
Iban	kukok	crow (of a cock)
Malay	ber-kokok ~ kukok	to crow, of barnyard cocks, and also of junglefowl
Old Javanese	ma-kukuk	to cluck, of a hen
Javanese	kukuk	owl
	ŋukuk	of laughter, loud and jeering

Note: With root *-kuk₂ ‘sound of a sob, cackle, etc.’

26803

*kukun tree sp.: Schoutenia ovata

3263

PMP *kukun tree sp.: Schoutenia ovata

WMP
Sundanese	hari-kukun	tree which yields a hard and durable wood
Old Javanese	hali-kukun, wali-kukun	a tree: Schoutenia (family of the Tiliaceae)
Javanese	bali-kukun	a tree: Schoutenia ovata
Madurese	kokon	a tree: Schoutenia ovata
Balinese	kali-kukun	a tree: Schoutenia ovata
CMP
Manggarai	kukuŋ	a tree: Schoutenia ovata
Rembong	kukun	a tree: Schoutenia ovata

Note: This comparison was first recognized by Verheijen (1967-70). The Sundanese, Javanese and Balinese cognates probably contain variants of the *qali-, *kali- prefix (Blust 2001).

26804

*kukuŋ cramps, stiffening of the limbs

3264

PWMP *kukuŋ cramps, stiffening of the limbs [doublet: *keŋkeŋ₂]

WMP
Old Javanese	kukuŋ	stiff, rigid
Bare'e	kuku	lockjaw

26859

*ku(ŋ)kuŋ deep resonant sound; name of a bird with deep resonant cry

3322

PAN *ku(ŋ)kuŋ deep resonant sound; name of a bird with deep resonant cry [doublet: *kaŋkaŋ, *keŋkeŋ₁, *kiŋkiŋ₁]

Formosan
Saisiyat	kokoŋ	small bird
Paiwan	kukuŋ	type of tiny bird with loud call of "kung", "kung", "kung"
WMP
Ilokano	koŋkóŋ	a bird; its cry is heard at dusk
	koŋkóŋ-en	knock, strike resoundingly; rap upon (a door, something hollow)
Isneg	koŋkóŋ	knocker
Kankanaey	koŋkóŋ	ring, cause to sound, clank, clang; strike a sonorous body
Malay	koŋkoŋ	baying of hounds
Sundanese	kuŋkuŋ	make a clear, reverberating sound
Mongondow	kuŋ-kuŋ	a bird, named from its cry
Bare'e	kuku	bird, the cry of which is heard at night
Makassarese	koŋkoŋ	dog; also used as a call; waterfowl named from its cry
CMP
Manggarai	kuŋkuŋ	rumble, boom

Note: Also Buruese kukut ‘bird sp.’, Sa'a kuu ‘(onom.) bark at’, Rotuman ʔū ‘bang loudly, of a gun, a nut falling on the roof, etc.’, may reflect the simple root.

31168

*kukuŋ₁ small bird that produces a deep resounding call

9183

PAN *kukuŋ₁ small bird that produces a deep resounding call

Formosan
Saisiyat	kokoŋ	small bird
Paiwan	kukuŋ	tiny bird sp. (call is loud “kung” “kung” “kung”)
WMP
Bare'e	kuku	a bird that is heard at night

Note: With root *-kuŋ₂ ‘deep resounding sound’.

31801

*kukuq stick to, adhere firmly

9987

PMP *kukuq stick to, adhere firmly

WMP
Malay	kukoh	staunch; strongly built; of unshaken loyalty, backing one’s assurances with guarantees, or with an oath, strengthening a town’s defenses; remaining staunch to old customs
	ber-kukoh pada	to stick to
Sundanese	kukuh	strong, firm; hold on to, stick to (a claim, demand, plan, etc.)
Old Javanese	kukuh	strong, firm, inflexible, tough, sturdy, relentless
Javanese	kukuh	solid, strong, resistant
	ŋukuh	to adhere to; to defend
Balinese	kukuh	be strong, grow strong; be firm, be stiff, be headstrong
OC
Arosi	gugu	to be fast, firm, clinging to; a sea creature like a starfish with tentacles --- clings so tightly it cannot be removed
Bauro	kuku	to cling, of bats
Tongan	kuku	to grasp, grip, clutch or hold on to

Note: Also Sasak kukuh ‘strong, of sturdy physique’. The resemblance between the forms in insular Southeast Asia and those in the Pacific may be a product of convergence, given the somewhat different semantics of the unaffixed base in the former languages.

33961

*kukus giving off smoke or steam; to steam cook rice

12801

PWMP *kukus giving off smoke or steam; to steam cook rice

WMP
Iban	kukus	to cook by steaming
Malay	kukus	steaming; cooking in steam
Old Javanese	kukus	smoke, spray, cloud (of dust, pollen, etc.)
	k<um>ukus	smoking, like smoke
	kukus-an	cone-shaped basket of woven bamboo in which rice is steamed
Javanese	kukus	smoke, steam
	ukus	to steam, cook by steaming; to give off smoke/steam
Sasak	kukus	steam (as from a volcano); steamed (as rice)
	ŋukus	to steam, as rice
Totoli	kukus	steam
Dampelas	kukus	steam
Banggai	kukus	rising of smoke

32035

*kukut to hang, suspend

10264

POC *kukut to hang, suspend

OC
Patpatar	kukūt	to hang oneself
Kaulong	kuk	to hang, suspend
'Āre'āre	kuku	hang down
Sa'a	ʔuʔu	to hang down, to depend, to swing
Ulawa	kuku	to hang down, to depend, of creepers; to pull down creepers

Note: A slightly longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2016:383).

31993

*kulabo a fish: Lethrinidae spp.

10217

POC *kulabo a fish: Lethrinidae spp.

OC
Titan	kulap	Lethrinidae, sea bream
Lau	kulabo	Lethrinidae sp.
East Uvean	kulapo	threadfin emperor: Lethrinus nematacanthus

Note: A longer version of this comparsion that contains numerous forms with phonological irregularities was proposed by Osmond (2011:81).

30763

*kulaC bracket fungus, Polyporus spp.

8465

PAN *kulaC bracket fungus, Polyporus spp.

Formosan
Puyuma	kuɭaT	Polyporus sulfurus, bracket fungus

8466

PMP *kulat₂ bracket fungus, Polyporus spp.

WMP
Ilokano	kúlat	bracket fungi
Agta (Dupaningan)	kulat	a mushroom that grows from a dead tree
Isneg	kúlāt	an edible, white bracket fungus whose edges are entire (eating it cures some types of skin disease); often used comprehensively for all polypores or bracket fungi
Kankanaey	kulát	Schizophyllum commune, a small white kudí abundant on wood (kudí = Polyporaceae, a group of fungi living mostly on trees, and often more or less tongue-shaped or fan shaped
Ibaloy	kodat	kind of edible mushroom that grows on dried wood, grayish white in color
Tagalog	kúlat ~ kulat-kúlat	a kind of fungus
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kulat	generic for edible mushrooms
Tiruray	kulot	a general term for mushroom; a mushroom, Polyporus sanguineus Linn.
Tboli	kulót	Cookeina, Octospora, or Sarcosoma, an edible fungus found on fallen logs
Kadazan Dusun	kuhat	mushroom
Tombonuwo	kulat	mushroom
Murut (Paluan)	kulat	mushroom
Abai Sembuak	kulat	mushroom
Ida'an Begak	kulat	kulat
Murut (Tagol)	kulat	mushroom
Lun Dayeh	kulat	mushroom
Kelabit	kulat	mushroom, toadstool
Sa'ban	loət	mushroom
Kayan	kulat	fungus; mushroom (general term for fungus)
Kiput	kulaat	mushroom
Melanau (Mukah)	kulat	fungus, mushroom
Malagasy	húlatra	a generic name for fungi
	hula-báratra	probably a kind of mushroom growing immediately after rain (varatra = ‘lightning’)
Iban	kulat	fungus, toadstool, mushroom (many varieties, both poisonous and edible)
	ŋulat	to collect edible fungus, go mushrooming
	batu kulat	noxious talisman
Malay	kulat	mushroom; fungus
	ber-kulat	to be moldy
Acehnese	kulat	toadstool, fungus
Sasak	kulat	bracket fungus that grows on trees (many varieties, both poisonous and edible)
CMP
Tetun	kulat	mushrooms, edible fungi
Yamdena	kulat	toadstool; sponge; moss on trees, stones, etc.
	na-kulat	overgrown with moss

8467

PWMP *ma-kulat (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Lun Dayeh	me-kulat	full of mushrooms; infested with fungus
Acehnese	urɯəŋ mɯ-kulat	preparer of poison

Note: Also Mongondow kuleʔ ‘toadstool; also address term to small children’, kuleʔ-ña ‘a refined term for the female genitals (puki and abolon are crude equivalents)’. Dempwolff (1938) reported this comparison only for Malay, Ngaju Dayak and Malagasy, and gave it the generalized gloss ‘Pilz’ (mushroom). However, it is now clear that *kulaC was found in PAn, and that the meaning was specifically ‘Polyporus spp.’, that is, ‘wood ears’, or bracket fungi that grow as saprophytes on decaying logs, a meaning that is supported by reflexes extending from Taiwan to Lombok. The term that denoted this specific referent was later generalized to all mushrooms in Tiruray, Malagasy, and apparently other languages, such as Kadazan Dusun, or to all edible mushrooms, as in Manobo (Western Bukidnon), even though it refers to both edible and poisonout varieties in other languages, as in Iban and Sasak.

26806

*kulad scar

3266

PWMP *kulad scar [doublet: *ulat]

WMP
Yami	kozad	scar
Ivatan	kulad	scar
Malagasy	hólatra	a scar
	holár-ina	having scars

Note: Also Itbayaten kolad ‘scar’, ma-kolad ‘with many scars on body’, Kalamian Tagbanwa ulat ‘scar’. With apparent variant of the root *-lat₂ ‘scar’.

26807

*kula-la(m)baR bat sp.

3267

PWMP *kula-la(m)baR bat sp.

WMP
Isneg	kulambág (< H)	the bat; one of the Chiroptera
Malay	kelawar	insect-eating bat; cave-bat
	kelelawar	insect-eating bat; cave-bat

26808

*kulambar fish sp.

3268

PWMP *kulambar fish sp.

WMP
Samal	kulambal	pearly monocle-bream or gold-lined sea-bream: Scopopsis margaritifer or Gnathodentex aurolineatus
Malay	kelambar	a fish, sp. unident.

31917

*kulaŋut dried nasal mucus

10129

PPh *kulaŋut dried nasal mucus

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kulaŋot	dried nasal mucus; to pick the nose
Tagalog	kulaŋot	dried mucus in the nose
Cebuano	kuláŋut	moist nasal discharge in the nose, but not soft

Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.

31994

*kulap dim, not well-lit

10218

PPh *kulap dim, not well-lit

WMP
Isneg	kúlāp	blind in one or both eyes
Cebuano	kuláp ~ kúlap	dim, not affording much light; or for the eyes to be dim

26809

*kulasa fatty hump on the back of a buffalo, etc.

3269

PWMP *kulasa fatty hump on the back of a buffalo, etc.

WMP
Malay	kelasa	hump; hard protuberant lump of flesh on the back
Bare'e	kulasa	the fatty hump on the withers of a buffalo

Note: This comparison was first noted in print by Adriani (1928).

31918

*kulasísi small parrot or parakeet kept as a pet

10130

PPh *kulasísi small parrot or parakeet kept as a pet

WMP
Ilokano	kulasísi	mistress
	ag-kulasísi	to have a mistress
Casiguran Dumagat	kulasisi	small parrot: Loriculus philippensis
Tagalog	kulasísi	small green parrot; fig. and colloq., mistress, paramour
Bikol	kulasísi	parakeet, usually translated into English by Bikolanos as ‘love bird’
Cebuano	kulasísi	kind of parakeet with a shrill voice, commonly kept as a pet: Loriculus philippensis

26810

*kulat open the eyes

3270

PMP *kulat₁ open the eyes

WMP
Kelabit	kulat	wake up
CMP
Manggarai	hulat	open the eyes very weakly

Note: With root *-lat₁ ‘open the eyes wide’.

29958

(Formosan only)

*kulay₁ worm, insect

6641

PAN *kulay₁ worm, insect

Formosan
Tsou	roi	insect, worm
Kanakanabu	kulái	insect, worm
Saaroa	kuliʔi	insect, worm
Siraya	kourey	worm

Note: Also Thao ku-kulay ‘generic for creepy-crawly creatures, including beetles, worms, and any unidentified insect or other small terrestrial invertebrate; bug’. The Thao word is clearly borrowed, presumably from Bunun, although lexicographic resources for Bunun are inadequate to determine this with certainty. It is possible that this was a PTSo innovation that spread into both Siraya and Thao.

31781

*kulay₂ wilt, droop, as flowers

9956

PWMP *kulay₂ wilt, droop, as flowers

WMP
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kuley	wilt a plant or leaf in the fire for any purpose
Malay	kulay	hanging down slackly; swaying (of a head swaying from side to side, a broken arm hanging limply, hair dressed in ringlets)
Bahasa Indonesia	tər-kulay	hanging limply; almost broken but still hanging (of hands, tree branches, etc.), hanging limply (as the ears of dogs, a flag); drooping, as a flower in the heat (Echols and Shadily 1963)

26811

*kulem dark, dim

3271

PWMP *kulem dark, dim

WMP
Agta (Central Cagayan)	kulem	rain cloud
Old Javanese	kuləm	night
Balinese	kulem	night, dark

Note: With root *-lem₁ ‘dark’.

30289

*kuliC rind, peeling of fruits or tubers

7213

PAN *kuliC rind, peeling of fruits or tubers

Formosan
Tsou	rici	peelings of tubers
	mu-ʔrici	to peel
Kanakanabu	kuíci	peelings of fruit and tubers
Saaroa	kulíci	peelings of fruit and tubers

7214

PMP *kulit skin; hide; rind; bark

WMP
Itbayaten	kolit	skin, bark, peeling, rind
Agta (Dupaningan)	kulet	tree bark, peel of a fruit, shell
	mag-kulet	to peel, skin
Isneg	kúlit	to peel (sugarcane)
Casiguran Dumagat	kulet	skin (of person, animal), bark of tree, peeling of fruit; to skin a deer, to peel skin off fruit; to peel bark off a tree
Bikol	mag-kúlit	to eat sugarcane, pulling off the skin with the teeth
Maranao	kolit	peeling of sweet potato
Tiruray	kulit	the outer covering, skin, rind, bark; to remove this
	kulit-an	afflicted with ringworm
Klata	kulit	skin
Mapun	kuwit	skin; the hide of an animal; rind, peeling of fruit; bark of tree; surface of water; coconut husk
Kelabit	kulit	skin (of people, animals, fruit, trees, bamboo); rice husk (singular; padek = plural)
Dali'	ulait	skin
Penan (Long Lamai)	kulit	skin
Bintulu	kulit	skin, bark
Melanau (Mukah)	kulit	skin; bark; shell
	kulit kayəw	bark of a tree
	kulit pəñuʔ	shell of a turtle
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)	kulit	skin
Ma'anyan	kudit	skin
Malagasy	hoditra	skin; bark
Iban	kulit	skin, hide, bark
	kulit buah	fruit skin, rind
Tsat	liʔ²⁴	skin
Cham	klik	skin
Moken	kolit	bark of tree; shell; skin
Malay	kulit	outer skin; hide; peel; rind; bark; shell; leather
Acehnese	kulét	skin; bark; rind; hide; leather
Gayō	kulit	skin
Karo Batak	kulit	bark of tree; peeling of a fruit
	ŋ-kulit-i	to peel a fruit
Toba Batak	hulit	leprosy
Mentawai	kulit	skin, bark
Enggano	e-ʔudi	skin
Proto-Lampungic	*kulit	skin
Sundanese	kulit	skin; hide; leather; rind; bark; peel of a fruit; membrane (as on milk); upper surface of water; crust
	sa-kulit-iŋ laut	the entire top surface of the sea
Mongondow	kulit	skin; bark; rind; bark
Bare'e	kuli	bark or bast of a tree that has been removed by peeling
Tae'	kuliʔ	skin; bark; peeling
Mori Atas	kuli	skin
Padoe	kuli	skin
Wawonii	kuli	skin
Mandar	uliʔ	skin
Makassarese	kuliʔ	hide; skin; leather; peeling; scale
Wolio	kuli	skin; crust; rind, peel; leather; outside
Bonerate	kuli	skin
Muna	kuli	skin; hide, leather; bark; peel, husk, rind, shell, crust
Popalia	kuli	skin
CMP
Bimanese	huri	skin
Sika	ulit	skin; bark
Lamboya	kalita	skin
Hawu	kuri	skin; bark
Tetun	kulit	skin, hide, pelt, bark
Waima'a	khuli	skin
Erai	ulik	skin; hide; bark
Tugun	ulik	skin
Kisar	ulik	skin
Roma	ulit-	skin
West Damar	ultso	skin
Leti	ulti	skin, hide, bark
Wetan	ulti	skin
Yamdena	kulit	skin, hide, bark
Masiwang	kurit	skin
Wahai	uni-n	skin
Hitu	uli	skin
Nusa Laut	urit-i-l	his/her skin
Sula	koli	skin
Soboyo	kuli	skin; bark
Sekar	kúnit	skin
SHWNG
Kowiai/Koiwai	urit	skin
Gimán	kulit	skin

7215

POC *kulit skin, bark, peel, shell

OC
Titan	kuli-	skin
Sori	uri	skin; bark of a tree
Seimat	uli-	skin; hide; bark of a tree
Wuvulu	uli-na	tree bark
Tigak	kulit(-i-na)	body
Vitu	kulit-a	skin
Arop	kuli-	skin
Kove	kuli-kuli	tree bark
Bebeli	kuni	skin
Lakalai	la kuli	outer husk of coconut
	la kuli-kuli	skin (a piece rather than the whole); bark; peel; cloth (introduced)
Tarpia	kuru	skin
Kis	kuli	skin
Ali	wuli-	skin
Manam	kulit-i	to peel galip nut
Mbula	kuli	surface, skin, bark
	kuli-ikam miaŋ	feel ashamed (lit. ‘skin has shame’)
	kuli isu	lose weight (lit. ‘skin descends’)
Yabem	ôli	skin
Piva	ghuni-	skin
Uruava	uri-	skin
Torau	uni-na	skin
Takuu	kiri ^<A	skin
Luangiua	ʔuli	skin
Mono-Alu	uli-li-na	skin; bark of a tree
Eddystone/Mandegusu	quli-quli	skin of a plant
	quliti	skin of a human body
	quli-a	to skin, pare, skin off
Nggela	guli	to skin, bark, as one’s shin or a tree
	guli-ti	to skin, bark, as one’s shin or a tree
Sikaiana	ili ^<A	skin
Nokuku	kuri-	skin
Mafea	uri-	skin
Amblong	uri-	skin
Tangoa	huri	skin
Araki	huri	skin; tree bark
Rotuman	ʔuli	skin, peel, bark, crust; leather; rubber tire
Fijian	kuli-	skin; bark; peel
	kuli-ta	to peel cooked taro or food cooked in water; to strip off the skin or bark of a tree
Tongan	kili	skin; peel, rind; bark
Niue	kili	skin, husk, outer surface
	kili-manu	leather
Tuvaluan	kili	skin
Kapingamarangi	gili	skin, outer layer, surface
Nukuoro	gili	skin
Rennellese	kigi	skin, bark, peel; cover, covering; leather; feather; color; to have as skin; to be born as
Anuta	kiri	skin, outer covering
Rarotongan	kiri	skin, hide, as of man or beast; bark, as of trees; leather
Maori	kiri	skin, bark; (fig.) person, self
Hawaiian	ʔili	skin; complexion; hide; scalp; bark; rind, peel

7216

POC *kuli-kulit skin disease

OC
Molima	kuli-kuli	a skin disease (in people), mange (in dogs)
Fijian	kuli-kuli	thick skin, a pachyderm; a diseased skin
Nukuoro	gili-gili	human skin in an unhealthy condition

7219

PWMP *kulit-an to be skinned, have the skin removed

WMP
Itbayaten	kolit-an	to remove skin, to peel
Ilokano	kúlit-kulit-an	to peel, bite off the rind of sugarcane
Casiguran Dumagat	kulit-an	to peel, remove the peeling
Malagasy	hodir-ana	to be skinned, flayed
Mongondow	kulit-an	skin it, remove the skin!

7220

PWMP *kulit-en to skin, remove the skin

WMP
Itbayaten	kulit-en	to remove the skin, to skin, flay the skin
Toba Batak	hulit-on	to contract leprosy

9145

PAN *ma-kuliC skinny, thin, underweight

Formosan
Pazeh	ma-kuris	skinny, lean, thin
	ma-kuri-kuris	very skinny
Amis	kolit	thin, underweight

7217

PWMP *ma-ŋulit to skin or peel, remove the skin or peeling

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-ŋulit	to skin, to peel
Kelabit	ŋulit	to skin (fruits, small trees, bamboo)
Malagasy	mo-noditra	to flay, to break the skin only in hitting with a spear
Malay	me-ŋulit-i	to skin

7218

PWMP *pa-ŋulit person who peels; thing used to peel (?)

WMP
Isneg	pa-ŋúlit	to peel (sugarcane)
Bahasa Indonesia	pe-ŋulit	the person who skins or peel something

Note: Also Kambera kalitu ‘skin’, Mbula kole-kole ‘skin disease (possibly yaws)’. Tsuchida (1976:226) also includes Paiwan (Tjuabu dialect) kulits ‘penis’ in this comparison, but the basis for this decision is obscure.

31919

*kulili fire saw; tie a tool around the hand or some other fixture

10131

PPh *kulili fire saw; tie a tool around the hand or some other fixture

WMP
Yami	kolili	thick cord, rope
Itbayaten	kolili	rope made of hide or rattan for tying a paddle to the two tholes
Ibatan	kolili	kind of fire saw
Ilokano	kulíli	fire saw; person who goes to and fro
	kulilí-en	to bore a hole, cause friction
Isneg	kulíli	the fire saw, consisting of a bamboo stick and two sections of a half bamboo that cover each other, both convex sides facing in the same direction; one of these is perforated in the center and contains tinder that is located over the hole and kept in place by the other bamboo; to operate it place the stick between your chest and something hard on the ground, take the bamboo sections in both hands and rub them repeatedly against the stick, at the place of the hole, with a rapid up-and-down movement
Pangasinan	kolilí	bamboo fire sticks
Maranao	kolili	wind around the hand, as in tying hand to sword handle

Note: There may be two distinct cognate sets here, as least one of which (represented by Itbayaten and Maranao) can be assigned to PPh.

30872

*kuliliŋ₁ round about, around, in one’s surroundings; go around

8697

PMP *kuliliŋ round about, around, in one’s surroundings; go around

WMP
Maranao	koliliŋ	throughout (a region or territory)
Iban	kəliliŋ	round, around; surround
	ŋəliliŋ	to go around something (as in circling a house)
Malay	kəliliŋ	situation around
	ber-kəliliŋ	round about
	sa-kəliliŋ	all round
	mə-ŋəliliŋ-kan	to go around with; to take round
Minangkabau	kuliliŋ	situation around
Sasak	kəliliŋ	go around, walk around
	ŋəliliŋ	to go around, walk around
Sangir	kudidiŋ	hang around, loiter
Mongondow	mo-kuliliŋ	to go around, walk around
	k<um>uliliŋ	to procede in a circle or walk around
OC
Bugotu	kilili ^<A	to be round about, around
	kilili-a	round about
	kili-ña	encompassing
Nggela	kilili	to send news out everywhere; to go round, walk round, as an island

Note: Also Sangir kudidiŋ ‘hanging about, lounging around’, Asilulu kalili ‘to go around’, Nggela kolili ‘in all directions; in confusion’.

30873

*kuliliŋ₂ to ring, of a small bell

8698

PPh *kuliliŋ₂ to ring, of a small bell

WMP
Ilokano	kulilíŋ	small bell
	ag-kulilíŋ	to ring
Tagalog	kulilíŋ	small bell; tinkle of a small bell
	k<um>ulilíŋ	to tinkle; to make sounds like a little bell
Cebuano	kulíliŋ	ringing, tinkling sound as that of a phone or small bell; for a small bell to ring

Note: Also Tagalog kililíŋ ‘small bell’, Aklanon kulíŋliŋ ‘ring (sound of a bell, telephone’). With root *-liŋ₁ ‘clear ringing sound’.

26812

*kulintaŋ a percussive musical instrument or ensemble: the gamelan

3272

PWMP *kulintaŋ a percussive musical instrument or ensemble: the gamelan

WMP
Maranao	kolintaŋ	musical instrument of eight gongs
Minangkabau	keléntaŋ, kelintaŋ	harmonica with keys of bell-metal
Sasak	keléntaŋ	percussion instrument with keys of copper or bamboo on which one strikes with round wooden disks
Mongondow	kulintaŋ	musical instrument consisting of five copper bowls placed on a wooden frame

Note: Also Isneg koritáŋ ‘kind of guitar’, Manobo (Western Bukidnon) kuliŋtaŋ ‘small gongs which are tuned in a pentatonic scale and played in a row with wooden sticks’, Malay kelentaŋ, kelentoŋ ‘repeated banging, clanging; wooden buffalo-bell or clapper’, kelentiŋ ‘continuous tinkling’, keléntoŋ ‘wooden clapper used by Chinese hawkers’, keruntiŋ ‘cattle-bell (of wood)’, Sasak kelénaŋ ‘percussion instrument with keys of copper or bamboo on which one strikes with round wooden disks’. This reconstruction is assumed to contain an onomatopoetic root *-taŋ ‘clanging sound’ paralleling *-tiŋ ‘sound of light ringing’, *-tuŋ ‘sound of deep ringing’.

33158

*kulintas necklace

11657

PPh *kulintas necklace

WMP
Sambal (Tina)	kolintah	necklace
Aklanon	kulíntas	necklace, medallion and chain
Agutaynen	kolintat	necklace
	kolintat-en	to wear a necklace
Palawano	kulintas	necklace

Note: Also Ayta Abellan kolinta, Ibaloy kowintas, Pangasinan kolíndas ‘necklace’.

31802

*kuliqik screech, as a hawk

9988

PWMP *kuliqik screech, as a hawk [disjunct: *kuriqik]

WMP
Itawis	mak-kúllek	to shout, scream
Cebuano	kulíʔik	a shrill, piercing shriek
Tausug	kuliik	a shriek, whinny; sharp, shrill outcry (from a person or animal, usu. in pain)
Iban	eŋ-kelik	to screech, scream (as a hawk)

33844

*kúlit to peel sugarcane with the teeth

12656

PPh *kúlit to peel sugarcane with the teeth

WMP
Ilokano	kúlit	to peel, decorticate (sugarcane); bite off the rind of sugarcane
Isneg	kúlit	to peel sugarcane
	pa-ŋúlit	to peel sugarcane
Bikol	mag-kúlit	to eat sugarcane, pulling off the skin with the teeth
Mansaka	korit	to remove with the teeth, bite off

Note: Possibly a reflex of PAn *kuliC ‘rind, peeling of fruits or tubers’, but if so its use as a verb with special reference to sugarcane has not been reported outside the Philippines.

33845

*kulitis native spinach, Amaranth

12657

PPh *kulitis native spinach, Amaranth

WMP
Ilokano	kolítis	amaranth
Tagalog	kulitis	common weed, the tender tops of which are used as a substitute for spinach; nettle
Bikol	kulítis	native spinach: Amaranthus viridis

Note: Possibly a loan distribution

31782

*kulkul bend the limbs, curl up the body

9957

PWMP *kulkul bend the limbs, curl up the body

WMP
Bikol	mag-kulkól	to cuddle or cradle; to have someone sit on one’s lap
Cebuano	kulkúl	grow to be gnarled, curled up; shrink back in fear
Malay	tər-kokol	huddled up, as of a man shivering with ague
	tər-kəjaŋ-kokol	stretching oneself and then withdrawing the limbs (as a man yawning)
Balinese	kukul	to be bent tightly (arm or leg)

Note: With root *-kul₁ ‘curl, bend’.

26814

*kulu a tree: Artocarpus sp.

3274

PMP *kulu₁ a tree: Artocarpus sp. [doublet: *kuluR 'breadfruit']

WMP
Maranao	kolo	Artocarpus elastica Reinw.
Mapun	kulu	a breadfruit tree or its fruit
CMP
Manggarai	kolo	Artocarpus altilis

Note: Manggarai kolo shows o for expected u. A similar irregularity is seen in *betuŋ > betoŋ ‘kind of bamboo: Dendrocalamus asper’.

31995

*kulu₂ coconut growth stage 9: ripe, flesh hardened

10219

POC *kulu₂ coconut growth stage 9: ripe, flesh hardened

OC
Tanga	kulu	fully grown drinking coconut
'Āre'āre	ʔuruʔuru	ripe (of coconuts only)
	ʔuruʔuru ana niu	a fully grown ripe coconut
Sa'a	ʔuluʔulu	a full-grown coconut, a dry nut on the tree or fallen off
Fijian	kulu-kulu	the youngest stage of the coconut

Note: A somewhat larger version of this comparison was proposed by Ross and Evans (2008:364).

26813

*kulub₁ log or bamboo ridgepole cover

3273

PWMP *kulub₁ log or bamboo ridgepole cover

WMP
Pangasinan	kolób	to cover; cover; bamboo used to cover ridge of roof
Kelabit	kulub	hollowed log laid inverted over the ridge of the roof to shed water
Kayan	kulum	ridging on roof

31861

*kulub₂ to slow cook in a tightly covered vessel

10061

PWMP *kulub₂ to slow cook in a tightly covered vessel

WMP
Tagalog	mag-kúlob	to braise; to cook meat long and slowly in a covered pan
	pag-kúlob	producing more heat or higher temperature by covering so as to make airtight; hermetical cooking
Sundanese	kulub	what is cooked
	ŋulub	cook something whole (eggs, beans, tubers, etc.)
	kulub-kulub	something that is cooked but for which the speaker does not know the name
Old Javanese	kulub	boiled lightly
	k<in>ulub	to boil lightly, stew
Javanese	ŋulub	to boil vegetables briefly
Sasak	kulup	cook in water without salt, as tubers

10062

PWMP *kulub-an (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Tagalog	kúlúb-an	pressure cooker
Old Javanese	kulub-an	lightly boiled dish of vegetables
Javanese	kulub-an	briefly boiled vegetables eaten with rice and hot sauce

31739

*kulubuŋ head covering for women

9907

PWMP *kulubuŋ head covering for women

WMP
Tagalog	kulubóŋ	wrap; a covering for the head (used by women)
Malay	kəluboŋ	a veil; veiling (used by women)

Note: Also Malay kəlumboŋ ‘veil; to veil’, səluboŋ ‘covering with a veil; hiding under a veil; veil’. Possibly a Malay loanword in Tagalog.

26815

*kuluŋ curl, curve

3275

PMP *kuluŋ curl, curve

WMP
Maranao	koloŋ	curl, ringlet
Kayan	kuluŋ	cylindrically curved surface; steeply sloping, of roof
CMP
Rotinese	kulu	to ripple, to wave; to be curled, to be wrinkled

Note: With root *-luŋ₁ ‘bend, curve’.

30460

*kuluR breadfruit

7651

PMP *kuluR breadfruit

WMP
Iban	kurur	breadfruit tree, Artocarpus sp.
Malay	kulur	breadfruit (with seeds), Artocarpus communis
Acehnese	kulu	breadfruit tree: Artocarpus incisa
Karo Batak	kulur	breadfruit tree: Artocarpus incisa
Sasak	kuluh	breadfruit tree and fruit, Artocarpus communis
Mongondow	kulug	kind of breadfruit tree, Artocarpus incisa
CMP
Kambera	kulu	kind of breadfruit, the seeds of which are eaten, Artocarpus communis
Tetun	kulu	fruiting trees in various types of Artocarpus genus
Erai	ulu	breadfruit (tree)
Selaru	us	breadfruit tree
Proto-Aru	*kuluR	breadfruit
Kola	kúluh	breadfruit
Dobel	úlur	breadfruit
SHWNG
Numfor	ur	breadfruit tree and fruit, Artocarpus communis; the fruit is prepared for eating in various ways; the young leaves are eaten as vegetables, and the trunk is hollowed out as a canoe hull
	ur	breadfruit
OC
Nauna	kul	breadfruit
Lou	kul	breadfruit
Penchal	kul	breadfruit
Loniu	kun	breadfruit
Nali	kuy	breadfruit
Lele	kuy	breadfruit
Papitalai	kul	breadfruit
Drehet	kuŋ	breadfruit
Bipi	kun	breadfruit
Seimat	ul	breadfruit
Wuvulu	ulu	breadfruit
Aua	ulu	breadfruit
Mussau	ulu	breadfruit
Bali (Uneapa)	kulu	breadfruit
Vitu	kulu	breadfruit
Kove	unu	breadfruit
Lakalai	la-ulu	breadfruit, Artocarpus incisa; by extension the soursop, Anona muricata
Manam	kulu	breadfruit, breadfruit tree (Böhm 1975)
	ʔulu	breadfruit (Blust n.d. (1975))
Takia	ul	breadfruit
Hula	kunu	breadfruit
Dobuan	ʔunu	breadfruit
Takuu	kuru	breadfruit tree and fruit
Pileni	kulu	breadfruit
Rotuman	ʔulu	breadfruit (many varieties)
Wayan	kulu	Artocarpus altilis (Moraceae), breadfruit; common village tree; fruit of this tree
Samoan	ʔulu	the breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.), cultivated almost everywhere, esp. in and near villages (a large number of its varieties and forms are distinguished by name)
Kapingamarangi	gulu	breadfruit tree: Artocarpus Altilis
Nukuoro	gulu	tree sp.: breadfruit
Rarotongan	kuru	the breadfruit
	pu kuru	breadfruit tree, Artocarpus incisa. There are several kinds of breadfruit, as kuru atu or kuru maori, sacred to Tangiianui Ariki, and kuru-ua ‘the seeded breadfruit; known as the soursop or jackfruit (Artocarpus integrifolia); this kind was introduced from Samoa.
Maori	kuru	breadfruit, the fruit and tree; now obsolete, occurring only in a few ancient songs
Hawaiian	ʔulu	the breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa); it is grown for its edible fruit, and sometimes for ornament

Note: Also Mapun kulu ‘a breadfruit tree or its fruit’, Mbula kun ‘breadfruit tree and fruit: Artocarpus altilis’, Gitua unu ‘breadfruit’, Motu unu ‘breadfruit, Artocarpus incisa and integrifolia’.

31680

*kulut curly-haired

9843

PMP *kulut curly-haired

WMP
Ilokano	kulót	curl; Negrito; curly, kinky
	ag-pa-kulót	to have a perm (curl the hair)
	maŋ-ŋulót	beautician; hairdresser
Ibaloy	kolot	curly hair
Tagalog	kulót	curl; a curled lock of hair; curly, wavy
Cebuano	kulút	curly haired (as the hair of Negritos); for hair to become curly, cause it to do so
Binukid	kulut	curly, wavy (hair); to curl, wave (hair)
OC
Arosi	ʔuru	curly, of hair

9844

PPh *kulut-én to curl, make curly

WMP
Ilokano	kulot-én	to curl
Ibaloy	kolot-en	to curl
Pangasinan	kólot	curl, kinky or curly hair
	man-kólot	to curl someone’s hair
Tagalog	kulut-ín	to make curly

30236

*kuman tiny parasite on the body, itch mite, chicken louse

7104

PMP *kuman tiny parasite on the body, itch mite, chicken louse

WMP
Mapun	kuman	scabies; small vermin (found in open sores or wounds)
Yakan	kuman	scabies bug, a parasitic mite
Malay	kuman	animacule; parasite, esp. of the parasite that causes itch; also as a description of a bacillus; fig. for (i) a very minute object and (ii) a predisposing germ
Mentawai	kuman	louse
Sundanese	kuman	name of a minute insect found in pimples and ulcers, itch mite
Sasak	kuman	chicken louse (can also be used as an expression for bacteria)
Wolio	kuma	germ, bacteria (< Malay?)
CMP
Tetun	kuman	small white maggots sometimes found swarming in chickens nests (Mathijsen 1906); a caterpillar, the common inch worm (Morris 1984)
Yamdena	kuman	mite or maggot on the skin

Note: Also Palawano uman ‘louse’, Makassarese kuʔmaŋ ‘moth’. Dempwolff (1938) compared Malay kuman with Fijian kuma a species of moth under a reconstruction *kuman damaging insect, but the connection of the Fijian word with the other forms cited here now appears doubtful.

30385

*kumaŋ hermit crab

7474

PMP *kumaŋ hermit crab [doublet: *qumaŋ]

WMP
Tiruray	kumaŋ	a general term for crabs
Iban	kumaŋ məñaruŋ	hermit crab (məñaruŋ < saruŋ ‘sheath, case, covering’)
CMP
Lamaholot	kumã	hermit crab
Kambera	kumaŋu	hermit crab
Erai	uman	snail, slug
Proto-Sub-Ambon	*kumanə	small crab
Nusa Laut	tuman-no	small crab
OC
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka	kumaŋa	hermit crab

Note: Also Numbami gubaŋa ‘hermit crab’. Since Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka k can reflect either *k or *q kumaŋa in this language may reflect *qumaŋ. In either case the PMP status of this form remains unchanged.

26816

*kumbal dry sago branch

3276

PMP *kumbal dry sago branch

WMP
Kadazan Dusun	kumba	(dry) sago branches
Murut (Timugon)	kumbal	sago stem
Banggai	kumbal	stem of the sago leaf
Tae'	kumba	tough, dry leaf sheath or dried calyx of the areca blossom; it is used to ladle up food into a dish
CMP
Asilulu	upal	sago palm midribs or petiole, esp. when dried

Note: This comparison was first brought to my attention through a conversation between D.J. Prentice and James T. Collins.

31681

(Formosan only)

*kumeS pubic hair

9845

PAN *kumeS pubic hair [disjunct: *kumiS]

Formosan
Amis	komes	pubic hair found in the groin area
Thao	kumish	pubic hair

30764

*kumi moustache

8468

PMP *kumi moustache [disjunct: *gumi, *gumis, *kumis]

WMP
Sangir	kumi	moustache, frayed end of a rope, etc.
	ma-ŋumi	cut off the frayed end of a rope
Tontemboan	kumi	whiskers, of people, cats, rats, antennae of shrimps or grasshoppers, barbels of fish
	ma-kumi	pluck out facial hair
	k<um>umi	pluck out facial hair
	kumi-n ~ kumi-an	one who has a beard, bearded one
Mongondow	kumi	moustache, whiskers
OC
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka	kumi-	chin
Nggela	gumi	hanging moss; beard
Piamatsina	humi-	beard
Fijian	kumi	the chin or beard
	kumu-kumi-a	adult, having a beard

Note: Also Tae', Makassarese bulu sumiʔ ‘moustache, whiskers’.

30600

*kumis moustache, beard

8001

PMP *kumis moustache, beard [doublet: *gumi, *gumis, *kumiS]

WMP
Malay	kumis	hair about the lips, moustache
Old Javanese	kumis	moustache
Javanese	kumis	moustache
Balinese	kumis	beard, moustach
Sasak	kumis	big moustache
CMP
Ngadha	kumi	beard, moustache; hair of the beard
Kambera	kumihu	moustache
OC
Lakona	wumi-	beard
Merig	wumi-	beard
Mafea	umi-	beard

Note: Also Balaesang bulu-sumi, Pendau bulu cumiʔ moustache.

30601

(Formosan only)

*kumiS pubic hair

8002

PAN *kumiS pubic hair [disjunct: *kumeS]

Formosan
Atayal (Cʔuliʔ)	kumis	hair (of animal), fur
Thao	kumish	pubic hair

Note: Also Saisiyat romiʃ ‘beard, moustache’, Kavalan umis pubic hair. The meaning of the PAn form is based on the semantic agreement between Thao and the preceding forms, which show an irregular reflex of the initial consonant in Kavalan, and of the second vowel in Amis. The meaning of this form apparently had shifted to beard, moustache in PMP, although a PMP reconstruction for pubic hair is yet to be proposed.

33327

*kumkum fold the arms over the chest; fold the wings, of a bird

11865

PWMP *kumkum fold the arms over the chest; fold the wings, of a bird

WMP
Tagalog	kumkóm	held against the chest
	kumkum-ín	to hold something against the chest
Bikol	mag-kumkóm	to fold the arms across the chest
Malay	kuŋkum	pressure from all sides; concentric pressure, e.g. of an elastic band on a roll of paper
	me-ŋuŋkum	to fold the wings (of a bird)
Mongondow	kuŋkum	to close, fold together (as wings, umbrella, book)

31862

*kumpáy kind of grass

10063

PPh *kumpáy kind of grass

WMP
Ifugaw (Batad)	kumpáy	a broad-leafed creeping grass (grows in fertile soil around dwellings, pond or upland fields, or wooded areas
Tagalog	kumpáy	fodder; grass or coarse food for horses and cattle
	kumpay-án	to feed; to feed an animal with fodder
Aklanon	kúmpay	fodder, grass or food for cattle; to feed (cattle)
Cebuano	kumpáy	kind of grass growing wild or cultivated in wet places for hay: Panicum maximum; to gather something for animal fodder

31825

*kumpul bunch or cluster of things; to gather

10017

PWMP *kumpul bunch or cluster of things; to gather

WMP
Tagalog	kumpól	bunch, cluster; a bunch of leaves (when in cluster); clump; knot; a group or cluster of persons or things
Mapun	kumpo	to gather together
	ŋumpo	to gather things together in a pile (as coconuts); to save (as money)
	ka-kumpoh-an	a place where people gather
	kumpoh-an	a pile of things gathered together; a gathering of people
Malay	kumpul	group; gathering; cluster
	kumpul kiambaŋ	a clump of water-weed
	ber-kumpul	to gather (of people)
	mə-ŋumpul-kan	to gather (things)
Sundanese	kumpul	come together, gather
	kumpul-an	hold a gathering or meeting
Old Javanese	a-kumpul	to gather, be together
	a-ŋumpul	to gather (something)
Javanese	kumpul	group, gathering; together, joined (with); sexual intercourse
	ŋumpul	to gather, form a group
	pa-kumpul-an	association, organization, club, team; meeting, gathering
	kumpul-an	gathering, meeting; association, organization; to associate or form a group with
Balinese	kumpul	to gather together, collect (intr.); a gathering, collection, heap
Sasak	kumpul	gathered together
	bə-kumpul	to gather

Note: Also Toba Batak humpol ‘’. Possibly a product of borrowing from Malay.

26817

*kumpuŋ maimed, amputated, of a limb

3277

PMP *kumpuŋ maimed, amputated, of a limb

WMP
Malay	kompoŋ	maimed by the lopping off of a limb of which only the stump remains

9382

POC *kubuŋ₁ maimed, amputated, of a limb [disjunct: *kubut]

OC
Nggela	kumbu	maimed, as a dog with tail cut off; man who has lost a leg, arm or finger

31313

*kumput maimed, amputated, of a limb

9383

PMP *kumput maimed, amputated, of a limb [disjunct: *kumpuŋ]

WMP
Malay	kompot	maimed by the lopping off of a limb of which only the stump remains
Sasak	kumput	tailless (as quails and some chickens)

9384

POC *kubut₁ maimed, amputated, of a limb [disjunct: *kubuŋ]

OC
Nggela	kumbu	maimed, as a dog with tail cut off; man who has lost a leg, arm or finger

30471

*kumuR gargle, rinse the mouth

7666

PMP *kumuR gargle, rinse the mouth

WMP
Yami	komoy	suck in the mouth
Malay	kumur	rinsing the mouth, gargling
	ber-kumur-kumur	to gargle, rinse the mouth
OC
Nggela	gumu-gumu	to hold liquid in the mouth
	ŋgumu	to rinse out the mouth, to gargle; liquid held in mouth; red spittle from betel chewing

Note: Also Malagasy hómoka ‘gargling, rinsing’, homòh-ina ‘to be gargled’. With root *-muR ‘gargle, rinse the mouth’. Dempwolff (1938) treated the Malagasy form as a regular reflex of *kumuR, but this is contradicted by his own statements, which suggest instead that it derives from *kumuk.

31709

*kumut to wrap in a blanket or sarong, as to keep warm or to sleep

9875

PWMP *kumut to wrap in a blanket to keep warm

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kúmut	to wrap oneself completely in a blanket
Mansaka	komot	to cover for warmth (as with a sack)
Tatana	kumut	blanket
Bare'e	kumu	sarong used for sleeping

31710

*kundul the wax gourd: Benincasa hispida

9876

PWMP *kundul the wax gourd: Benincasa hispida [doublet: *kunduR]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kundul	a large, green, melon-shaped vegetable, the wax gourd: Benincasa hispida
Tagalog	kundól	white gourd melon used in making sweet preserve
Cebuano	kundul	spreading annual vine producing long, green melons of oblong or bottle-like shape, eaten cooked when unripe, and when ripe made into candy: Benincasa hispida
Malagasy	hundru	pumpkin

Note: Also Toba Batak gundur ‘kind of gourd’, Sundanese kundur ‘kind of calabash’. Possibly a loan distribution.

31711

*kunduR the wax gourd: Benincasa hispida

9877

PWMP *kunduR the wax gourd: Benincasa hispida [doublet: *kundul]

WMP
Hanunóo	kundúy	a cucumber with very white interior
Malay	kundur	the wax gourd: Benincasa cerifera
	kundur jawa	the wax gourd: Benincasa hispida

30709

*kunem cloud

8289

PWMP *kunem cloud

WMP
Ilokano	kúnem	overcast, cloudy; dull; weak minded
Atta (Pamplona)	kunam	cloud
Itawis	kunam	cloud
Casiguran Dumagat	kunəm	white clouds; cloudy
Kalamian Tagbanwa	unum	stationary cloud on horizon
Palawano	kunem	cloud
	me-kunem	cloudy
Aborlan Tagbanwa	kunum	cloud
Proto-Chamic	*gunam	cloud
Jarai	gənam tit	black cloud
Rhade	knam	black cloud; cloudy

Note: Also Ilokano kuyém ‘overcast sky’, na-kuyém ‘cloudy’, Agta (Central Cagayan) kuləm ‘cloud’.

30461

*kunij turmeric: Curcuma longa

7652

PMP *kunij turmeric: Curcuma longa

WMP
Ilokano	kúnig	Curcuma zedoaria, plant that yields a yellow dye
	mara-kúnig	not yet fully developed (rice)
	k<imm>únig	yellowish
Isneg	kúnig	the zedoary, Curcuma zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc. Its rootstocks yield a yellow dye
Bontok	kúnəg	an erect herb with aromatic, fleshy rootstock, producing a yellow juice used as a dye: Curcuma zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc.
Kankanaey	kúnig	Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. A broad-leaved zingerberaceous herb, whose bulbs yield a yellow dye
Casiguran Dumagat	kuneg	species of cultivated root used for making yellow dye
Tboli	kunil	turmeric: Curcuma domestica
Malagasy	hónitra	a creeping plant used by the Betsimisaraka as a red dye
Iban	kuñit	turmeric; the rhizone yields a yellow dye, and is used for smearing the forehead of a corpse at the laying out of the dead
Malay	kuñit	turmeric: Curcuma longa; kuñit is associated (etymologically) with yellow (kuniŋ)
Karo Batak	kuniŋ	Curcuma, turmeric
	ŋ-kuniŋ-i	rub turmeric into something
Toba Batak	hunik	turmeric, the root of which is used to color curry yellow
Old Javanese	kunir	turmeric
	kunir-en	yellowish?
Javanese	kunir	turmeric, used in cooking; also as the symbolic representation of the clitoris in the sunat ceremony (ritual piercing of the clitoris of girls, and circumcision for boys)
Sangir	kuniʔ	a plant: Curcuma longa
	kuniʔ kahəŋaŋ	the true kuniɁ, used as a spice
Uma	kuni	curcuma
	mo-kuni	yellow
Tae'	kuniʔ	the curcuma plant; the roots are used as a spice, a dye, and to give a yellow tint to cooked rice: Curcuma domestica
	paʔ-kuniʔ	that which is tinted yellow with curcuma
	paʔ-kunir-an	used to tint something yellow with curcuma
CMP
Rembong	kunis	turmeric: Curcuma longa
Tetun	kunir ^<M	a plant; also, the color yellow

7653

PWMP *k<in>uñij-an material that has been colored yellow with turmeric

WMP
Kankanaey	k<in>unig-an	yellow-dyed cotton yarn
Toba Batak	h<in>unih-an	rice colored yellow with turmeric

Note: Also Ifugaw únig ‘yellow’, Bintulu kunjit, Old Javanese kuñit ‘turmeric’. It is assumed that Iban, Malay kuñit show sporadic palatalization of the alveolar nasal before a high front vowel, and that the Old Javanese variant kuñit is a Malay loanword.

26818

*kunkun shrink

3278

PMP *kunkun shrink [disjunct: *kuŋkuŋ]

WMP
Bikol	kúnkún	shrink
Makassarese	kuŋkuŋ	shrink, contract
OC
Arosi	ʔuʔu	be shrunken in body

31698

*kunu₁ jealous

9863

POC *kunu₁ jealous

OC
Tolai	kun	jealous, envious
Kwaio	kunu-a	to gossip about, be jealous of, accuse of infidelity
	kʷai-kunu-i	be jealous of, make jealous accusations against (esp. of infidelity)

31712

*kunu₂ it is said, people say.....

9878

PMP *kunu₂ it is said, people say..... [disjunct: *kenu, *kunuq]

WMP
Yami	kono	hear, rumor
Itbayaten	kono	it is said, they say; as reported, as rumored
Ibaloy	kono	it is said, they say; I understand that, the story goes that, according to
Tagalog	kunó	it is said; so they say; as it was heard around
Hanunóo	kúnu	it is said, they say (the common quotative)
Cebuano	kunú	it is said, someone said
Mansaka	kono	hearsay; they say
Malagasy	hono	it is said, it is reported, so report says
	mi-hono	to hear a report only
Malay	kunu-n	it is said, they say
OC
Arosi	ʔunu	to speak, tell, name, say, call

Note: Also Siraya kun ‘quotation marker’, Ilokano kanó ‘marks indirect speech and/or doubt; it is said, they say; supposedly, allegedly; according to’, Isneg kanó ‘it is said, they say’, Malay kono-n ‘methought; we believe; it was said’.

31713

*kunuq it is said, people say.....

9879

PPh *kunuq it is said, people say..... [disjunct: *kenu, *kunu]

WMP
Hanunóo	kúnuʔ	saying, telling; poetic or literary
Tausug	kunuʔ	quotative particle for indirect speech, he/she says, they say, according to (disclaims responsibility for speech reported); euphonic particle for politeness

26819

*kunut pinch

3279

PMP *kunut pinch

WMP
Cebuano	kúnut	pinch someone with the finger and the thumb
Palauan	kuld-	pinch mark on body
	mə-ŋuld	pinch with fingernails
OC
Gedaged	kunut-i	pinch off (with the fingernails), pluck (cloth, wool, lint) into shreds, squeeze or compress between any two hard bodies

Note: Also POc *ŋkiñit ‘pinch, pluck, nip’.

29908

(Formosan only)

*kuNkuN Formosan hill partridge

6579

PAN *kuNkuN Formosan hill partridge

Formosan
Pazeh	kulukun	bamboo partridge
Thao	kuzkuz	the Formosan hill partridge: Arborophila crudigularis (Swinhoe), fam. Phasianidae
Paiwan	kulʸkulʸ	small bird sp.

31841

*kúñat tough, rubbery, elastic

10038

PPh *kúñat tough, rubbery, elastic

WMP
Kapampangan	ma-kúñat	tough, rubbery, resilient
Tagalog	kúnat	resiliency; ductility; flexibility; pliability
	ma-kúnat	ductile; resilient; bending without breaking; flexible; pliable; stingy; mean
Cebuano	kúnat	being tough and slightly elastic, difficult to chew (as taffy)

Note: Almost certainly not a loan distribution, since Kapampangan could not acquire its areally distinctive and historically accurate palatal nasal from Tagalog. With root *-ñat ‘stretch’.

26858

*kuŋ sound of cooing or barking

3321

PMP *kuŋ sound of cooing or barking

WMP
Malay	koŋ	deep boom
Karo Batak	kuŋ	onomatopoetic for the sound of the tame quail
CMP
Manggarai	kuŋ	sound of a frog, croak; sound of howling
OC
Nggela	guu	to shout
Sa'a	kuu	to bark at
Rotuman	ʔū	bang loudly, of a gun, a nut falling on the roof, etc.’.

Note: With root *-kuŋ₂ 'deep, resounding sound'

31169

*kuŋkuŋ₁ deep resounding sound; slit-gong, hollowed tree trunk used to send messages

9184

PAN *kuŋkuŋ₁ deep resounding sound; slit-gong, hollowed tree trunk used to send messages

Formosan
Amis	koŋkoŋ	to knock at the door; to knock on a drum (slit-gong or hollow log)
	ma-koŋkoŋ	to be hollow inside
	pi-koŋkoŋ-an	a drum made from a tree trunk, used to arouse the village to action
WMP
Ilokano	kuŋkóŋ	kind of small bird that cries at dusk; hollowed-out tree trunk used for sending messages
	k<an>uŋkóŋ	hollow sound; echo; reverberation
	kuŋkoŋ-án	to call by knocking
	kuŋkoŋ-én	to pound; knock; hammer, make a hollow sound
Isneg	koŋkóŋ	knocker
Kankanaey	koŋkóŋ	to ring; to cause to sound; to clank; to clang (striking a sonorous body)
Malay	koŋkoŋ	baying of hound (onom.)
Sundanese	ŋuŋkuŋ	produce a clear echoing sound
Balinese	ŋoŋkoŋ	to bark, bark at (dogs)
	koŋkoŋ-a	be barked at (by a dog)
Mongondow	kuŋ-kuŋ	kind of bird named from its call
CMP
Manggarai	kuŋkuŋ	rumbling sound

Note: Also Makassarese koŋkoŋ ‘dog; waterfowl that makes a sound like the barking of a dog’, Buruese kukut ‘bird sp.’. Given their onomatopoetic character the systematic resemblance of some of these forms could be due to convergence, as could the similarity of this comparison to *kukuŋ ‘small bird that produces a deep resounding call’. With root *-kuŋ₂ ‘deep resounding sound’.

31170

*kuŋkuŋ₂ curve, curved; hollow

9185

PMP *kuŋkuŋ₂ curve, curved; hollow

WMP
Itbayaten	kuŋkuŋ	idea of concavity or hollow
Bikol	mag-kuŋkóŋ	to walk hunched over
Aklanon	kóŋkoŋ	to curl inwards (of one’s toes)
Cebuano	k<al>uŋkúŋ	for the body or limbs to be curled up, bent
	i-kuŋkúŋ	curled up, bent
	na-kuŋkúŋ	to be gnarled, as the fingers of an old man
Tausug	kuŋkuŋ	bent over, curled up (from illness, age, fear, or joy; thus fearful, trembling, cowering)
CMP
Manggarai	kuŋkuŋ	curve, curved; hollow

Note: With root *-kuŋ ‘bend, curve’.

26853

*kuŋkuŋ₃ shrink

3316

PMP *kuŋkuŋ₃ shrink [doublet: *keŋkeŋ₃] [disjunct: *kunkun]

WMP
Makassarese	kuŋkuŋ	shrink, contract
OC
Arosi	ʔuʔu	be shrunken in body

31953

*kuŋkuŋ₄ surrround in order to confine or protect

10172

PWMP *kuŋkuŋ₄ surrround in order to confine or protect

WMP
Kadazan Dusun	kuŋkuŋ	to imprison, handcuff, detain
	kuŋkuŋ-on	to put into prison
Murut (Timugon)	kuŋkuŋ	skin
Ngaju Dayak	kuŋkoŋ	a neck band with three to five agate stones
Malagasy	húnkuna	a ferrule (metal ring)
	mi-húnkuna	having a ferrule on
Iban	koŋkoŋ	necklace; fasten a ring around the neck
	kuŋkoŋ	necklace
Toba Batak	huŋkuŋ	bamboo cane used as a neckband for a dog
	maŋ-huŋkuŋ	to encircle in war
Sundanese	ŋuŋkuŋ	(of women and children, animals, etc.) to support, maintain, look after
Old Javanese	kuŋkuŋ	a particular kind of ornament (ring?, bracelet?)
	k<in>uŋkuŋ	to lock up, confine, hold captive
Javanese	ŋuŋkuŋ	to confine, incarcerate

31954

*kuŋkuŋ₅ small bird and its call

10173

PWMP *kuŋkuŋ₅ small bird and its call

WMP
Ilokano	kuŋkóŋ	kind of small bird that cries at dusk
Iban	buroŋ kuŋkoŋ	Black and yellow broadbill: Eurylaimus ochromalus Raffles

Note: Almost certainly the same form as *kuŋkuŋ₁ ‘deep resounding sound’, but the distinct meaning of this form merits a separate reconstruction.

32036

*kúpaŋ a tall tree: Parkia spp.

10265

PPh *kúpaŋ a tall tree: Parkia spp.

WMP
Ilokano	kúpaŋ	a tall tree: Parkia sp.
Ayta Abellan	kopaŋ	kind of tree
Tagalog	kúpaŋ	a species of large tree bearing long, dark-colored pods
Hanunóo	kúpaŋ	a large tree: Parkia javanica [Lam.] Merr.
Palawano	kupaŋ	kind of tree

Note: Madulid (2001:391) cites kupaŋ ‘Parkia roxburghii’ as common to ‘Many languages’ in the Philippines, but apart from the few languages cited here I have not found it in any dictionary available to me.

31717

*kúpas to fade

9883

PPh *kúpas to fade

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kúpas	to fade, change color
Casiguran Dumagat	kúpas	to fade (of cloth which loses its color)
Ibaloy	kopas	to fade --- spoken of cloth
Tagalog	kupás	faded; discolored
	k<um>upás	to become faded; to discolor
Aklanon	kúpas	to fade (color), to lose color
Agutaynen	kopas	faded
	k<om>opas	to fade, as of colors, clothing; for flowers to lose their brilliance; for jewelry to become tarnished, or have the gold worn off
Cebuano	kupás	for something to lose its aroma from having been left uncovered
Mansaka	kopas	to fade (as color of cloth)

Note: Also Itbayaten opas ‘to fade (in color)’. Dempwolff (1938) compared Tagalog kupas to Malay kupas ‘shelling; peeling; removing husk or skin’, and similar forms in other languages of western Indonesia, but this now seems clearly to be misguided.

31826

*kupiŋ sticking out or turned forward, of ears

10018

PWMP *kupiŋ sticking out or turned forward, of ears

WMP
Tagalog	kupíŋ	irregularly shaped (said of ears)
Bikol	kupíŋ	describing ears that grow unnaturally forward and are somwhat folded; floppy-eared (as a dog)
Malay (Java)	kupiŋ	ear
Sundanese	kupiŋ	ear (said to be from Javanese)
Old Javanese	kupiŋ ~ kopiŋ	ear
Javanese	kupiŋ	ear
Balinese	kupiŋ	ear
Sasak	kupiŋ	forward-turned ears, ears that stick out

26820

*kupit press together, close tightly

3280

PAN *kupit press together, close tightly

Formosan
Amis	kopit	eyes closed; to close eyes
WMP
Ilokano	ag-kuppít	close, shut (a wound, the mouth, etc.)
Pangasinan	kopít	to close mouth, eyes, book, etc.
Iban	kupit	knock-kneed
Malay	kopét	narrowly open. Of hooks, etc., of which the point turns inward
Sangir	məʔ-kupiʔ	shut, closed, of the mouth; sit in silence with lips pressed tightly together

Note: With root *-pit ‘press, squeeze together; narrow’.

31827

*kúpit pilfering, filching, stealing small amounts

10019

PPh *kúpit pilfering, filching, stealing small amounts

WMP
Ilokano	kúpit	cheated money; cheated investment; pilfering
	k<um>úpit	to filch money
Casiguran Dumagat	kúpit	to pilfer, to filch, to poach, to steal; to short change
Ibaloy	kopit	graft, kickback, cheating, pilfering (said to be from Ilokano)
Tagalog	kúpit	pilfering, filching
	k<um>úpit	to pilfer; to filch; to steal in small quantities
Aklanon	kúpit	to pickpocket; to embezzle a small amount; a small amount which was embezzled
Agutaynen	mag-kopit	to pilfer; to steal small amounts of money
Cebuano	kupít	to extort petty amounts

Note: Possibly a loan distribution from Tagalog.

26821

*kupkup₁ cover with a thin layer

3281

PWMP *kupkup₁ cover with a thin layer

WMP
Malay (Jakarta)	kukup	face-veil
Karo Batak	kupkup	closed (of a blossom, umbrella, etc.)
Toba Batak	huphup	covered
Sundanese	kukup	throw something (as a cloth) over, cover over (as waves covering a ship)
Mongondow	kukup	cover, as with a layer of gilt

31718

*kupkup₂ to wrap, encircle, as with the arms or wings

9884

PPh *kupkup₂ to wrap, encircle, as with the arms or wings

WMP
Ilokano	kupkóp	to wrap, cover with the arms or wings
Ayta Abellan	kopkop	to hover over (as a mother hen over her chicks); to keep and protect under one’s care
Mansaka	kopkop	to wrap; to surround; to encircle
	kupkup	to embrace; to hug

31805

*kupkup₃ to clutch, hold tightly

9991

PMP *kupkup₃ to clutch, hold tightly

WMP
Tagalog	kupkóp	kept and protected under one’s care (literally as a hen covers her chicks); held against one’s breast or chest, as a mother holding a child
Aklanon	kúpkop	to embrace, hug
Javanese	kukup	to pick up by doubled handfuls, i.e. in the cupped hands; to take care of (someone who is alone in the world)

9992

POC *kukup to clutch, hold tightly

OC
Motu	gugu	to clasp
Tongan	kuku	to grasp, grip, clutch or hold on to
Niue	kuku	to hold fast: to grasp, clench
Samoan	ʔuʔu	to hold, grip, clutch

9993

PWMP *k<um>upkup to take care of, protect

WMP
Tagalog	k<um>upkóp	to take care of and protect
Old Javanese	k<um>ukup	to take together, gather up

31996

*kupkup₄ close-cropped, of hair; bald

10220

PPh *kupkup₄ close-cropped, of hair; bald

WMP
Ilokano	kupkóp	bald
	ag-kupkóp	to go bald
	kupkup-án	to make someone bald
Yogad	kukkúp	closely-cropped hair, bald; shaved head
Bikol	kupkóp	describing hair that is short or plastered down; a crew cut
	mag-kupkóp	to remain short (of the hair)
	mag-pa-kupkóp	to have the hair cut short

32037

*kupuk emit smoke or steam

10266

POC *kupuk emit smoke or steam

OC
Bebeli	kuvuk	smoke
Kilokaka	kufu	smoke
Nggela	gu-guvu	steam; heat; hot, warm, as water for bathing a baby
Nokuku	kuv-kuvu	ashes
Wayan	kuvu	steam, give off steam
	i-kuvu-kuvu	any escape valve for steam or smoke; chimney, funnel of ship
	kuvu-i	be smoked (as fish); be fumigated with chemicals or smoke; be given a steam bath, have a steam bath
Fijian	kuvu	dust, spray, smoke, steam, the foam at the front of a swiftly moving; canoe; to foam or smoke
	kuvu-ca	to puff into, of smoke
	kuvu-i	smoke-dried (as sea cucumbers)

Note: Also Rennellese kohu ‘to emit smoke or steam, as a fire or boiling kettle; to break, as ocean spray; to blow, as wind; to steam, smoke’. A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond, Pawley and Ross (2003:76-77), who give Tongan kofu ‘emit smoke’, but Churchward (1959) actually lists kohu ‘to smoke, emit smoke, give off smoke or fumes’, which is phonologically incompatible with the present reconstruction.

31997

*kupuR pigeon or dove sp.

10221

POC *kupuR pigeon or dove sp.

OC
Patpatar	kuhur	ground dove
Tolai	kuvur	pigeon sp.
Nggela	kuvu	a species of pigeon, very small, yellowish breast

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Clark (2011:315), who includes 'Āre'āre kuvu ‘wood pigeon’, although Geerts (1970) actually cites the phonologically incompatible kuwu ~ kuwu-kuwu ‘wood pigeon’.

31804

*kupwena kind of long rectangular fishing net

9990

POC *kupwena kind of long rectangular fishing net

OC
Baluan	kupʷen	kind of long rectangular fishing net
Loniu	kupʷen na tenih	large triangular net for catching sardines
	kupʷen na kanas	large rectangular net for catching mullet
Titan	kupʷen	rectangular fishnet used to catch small fish
Likum	kupʷen	rectangular fishnet
Bipi	kupʷen	fishing net (generic)
Mussau	uena	casting net
Dobuan	ʔupʷena	curtain
Arosi	ʔubena	a large net
Bauro	gupena	a large net
Nakanamanga	kupʷena	fishnet
Proto-South Hebridean	*ku(m)pena	fishing net (Lynch 1978:757)

Note: Also Nali kopwen ‘a triangular fishnet worked by two men with sticks’, Tolai ubene ‘fishnet’, Tongan kupeŋa net, esp. fishing net’.

26836

*kur word used to call chickens, etc.

3296

PMP *kur word used to call chickens, etc. [doublet: *kuru₁]

WMP
Malay	kur	a cry for calling fowls, or for recalling the spirit of life which is personified as a bird
Toba Batak	hur	word used to conjure up the wind
CMP
Ngadha	ku	call a dog

Note: Also Isneg kurkur ‘call chickens home’, Pangasinan korók, Bikol kurúk-ay ‘call chickens’, Cebuano kúruk ‘call a chicken to come by saying krrrk-krrrk, rolling the r's in a high-pitched voice’, Tiruray kerek ‘to call chickens with the sound krrrk’, Palauan kerruk ‘chicken’, Malay keru ‘cry for calling fowls’. Dempwolff (1934-38) reconstructed *ku(r) ‘sound used to call chickens’, but cited evidence only from western Indonesia.

31626

*kurap ringworm

9778

PAN *kurap ringworm

Formosan
Saaroa	kurapə	scabies
Puyuma	kurap	skin illness due to a dry skin (not itching); ringworm, only in the hair
	ma-kurap	get or have ichthyosis
Paiwan	kurap	scabies, scaly skin disease
	ma-kurap	to have scabies
	kura-kurap	white, soft tree fungus
WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kurap	scurf, scabies (probably from Banjarese)
Iban	kurap	ringworm (of the body)
Malay	kurap	parasitic disease of the ringworm type
	kurap anjiŋ	mange
	kurap ayam	Tinea imbricata
Nias	kura	ringworm
Sundanese	kurap	ringworm
Javanese	kurap	chapping of the skin
	kurap-en	to have/get chapped skin
Balinese	kurap	a disease of fowls; a white rash on human skin
Sasak	kurap	skin rash

Note: Also Toba Batak gurap ‘a skin disease, ringworm, Herpes’

31952

*kurapu a fish, the sea perch, giant rock cod

10171

PWMP *kurapu a fish, the sea perch, giant rock cod [disjunct: *kuRapu, *kuRapuq]

WMP
Tagalog	kulapó	sea perch; a species of grouper
Malay	ikan kərapu	sea perch, Serranus spp.; a very large fish of the Scorpaenidae, about which many legends exist
Mongondow	kurapu	kind of sea fish

Note: Possibly a Malay loan distribution, although it is difficult to see why a word for a common marine fish would be borrowed into languages spoken by people in daily contact with the sea.

31998

*kurat the dye produced from the Morinda citrifolia

10222

POC *kurat the dye produced from the Morinda citrifolia

OC
Tanga	ura:t	species of tall tree (one type grows in the bush and another on the beach); the root gives a strong red dye
Roviana	gurata	a tree with fruit eaten when soft and roots that furnish a splendid red stain or dye: Morinda citrifolia
Longgu	ʔura	Morinda citrifolia
Efate (South)	na-kur	Morinda citrifolia
Anejom	na-uras	Morinda citrifolia
Rotuman	ʔurɔ	Morinda citrifolia
Wayan	kura ni viti	small shrubby tree of coastal thickets, with large solitary many-seeded fist-like fruit that becomes soft, yellow, and taste like acidic cheese, the Indian mulberry: Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison which contains a number of phonologically irregular forms was first proposed by Geraghty (2004), and again by Ross (2008g:408). The gloss, which distinguishes this form from POc *ñoñum ‘Morinda citrifolia’, was supplied by Geraghty.

31741

*kuray veining pattern on wood or other material

9909

PWMP *kuray veining pattern on wood or other material

WMP
Tagalog	kúlay	color; hue; tint
Maranao	koray	patterns --- whorl of grains of wood
Miri	kuray	natural wood grain (also used of design in fowl’s feathers, etc.)
Malay	kuray	veining; strip-marking on kris blades

26824

*kureb lie face downward

3284

PWMP *kureb lie face downward

WMP
Aklanon	kueób	face down(wards)
Hiligaynon	kulúb	inverted, upset, turned over
Cebuano	kulúb	lie on one's belly, be overturned (as a boat)
Old Javanese	kureb	lie in an overturned position, lie face downward

26825

*kure(n)dut wrinkled, as the skin

3285

PWMP *kure(n)dut wrinkled, as the skin

WMP
Bikol	kurundót	wrinkled (used only of the skin)
Melanau (Mukah)	keredut	wrinkled
Malay	kerdut	creased; furrowed; deeply lined
	kerdut muka	with a frowning face

Note: Also Tagalog kulubót ‘wrinkle’, Cebuano kulíut ‘grimace or distort one's face in anger or pain’, Manobo (Western Bukidnon) kureret ‘to wrinkle, as an aged person's skin’, Kelabit geriset ‘wrinkle (of skin or clothing)’, Melanau (Mukah) kereñut, keresaŋ/ ‘wrinkled’, Malay keledut ‘much creased, crumpled or wrinkled’, keremut ‘puckering up the face’, keresut ‘puckering the forehead’, Javanese jeŋkerut ‘full of creases, wrinkles’.

26837

*kur(e)qit scratch mark, line

3297

PMP *kur(e)qit scratch mark, line

WMP
Ilokano	korʔit	scratch with claws or nails, paper in writing; scratching a match
Bontok	kulʔit	to mark, as with a pencil
Bikol	kúrit	a line (as "a straight line")
	mag-kúrit-an	draw a line on
Aklanon	kúrit	mark up, make lines in
Cebuano	kúlit	carve or engrave
CMP
Manggarai	kurit	marked with chalk lines
Tetun	kurit	to scratch (as a thorn against the skin, a match in lighting)

31682

*kuretret to wrinkle, be wrinkled, as the skin

9846

PPh *kuretret to wrinkle, be wrinkled, as the skin

WMP
Ilokano	kuretrét	a wrinkle
	ag-kuretrét	to wrinkle; crease; frown
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kureret	to wrinkle, as an aged person’s skin

Note: The Manobo (Western Bukidnon) form shows irregular reduction of the consonant cluster.

26826

*kuriak cry, shout

3286

PWMP *kuriak cry, shout [doublet: *kuRiat 'creak, squeak']

WMP
Maranao	koriak	cry
Malay	keriak	crying out (used of "three cheers")

31568

*kuriap dolphin

9695

POC *kuriap dolphin

OC
Nauna	uri	dolphin
Lou	wɨriy	dolphin
Pak	wihi	dolphin
Ere	uriy	dolphin
Titan	wiri	dolphin
Leipon	wuri	dolphin
Likum	uri	dolphin
Bipi	wuxi	dolphin
Seimat	uxi	dolphin
Wuvulu	uxi	dolphin
Tolai	kuriap	dolphin
Numbami	kuliawa	dolphin

Note: This comparison was first recognized by Osmond and Pawley (2011:245) on the basis of a wider comparison in which many of the comparata are phonologically irregular.

33665

*kuriat creak, sound of a cricket

12410

PWMP *kuriat creak, sound of a cricket

WMP
Ilokano	kuriát	cricket, believed to be bad because they enter the ears and may cause hardship or death
Itawis	kuryát	cricket
Pangasinan	kóryat	cricket
Malay	kəriaŋ-kəriat	creaking of a door

26828

*kurin clay cooking pot

3288

PWMP *kurin clay cooking pot [doublet: *kuden]

WMP
Iban	kurin	kind of cooking pot
Sangir	kuriŋ	clay cooking pot
Tae'	kurin	clay cooking pot
Buginese	uriŋ	cooking pot
Makassarese	uriŋ	cooking pot

Note: Also Malay guri ‘small earthenware water-vessel’, kori, kuri/ ‘water-vessel, jar’, Proto-Minahasan *kureʔ ‘cooking pot’. Mills (1975:739) attributes Buginese, Makassarese uriŋ to *kuden, but notes that under such a hypothesis the last vowel is unexplained.

26832

*kuriŋ striped with red and black

3292

PWMP *kuriŋ striped with red and black

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kuriŋ	black or red stripes on white; red or white stripes on black
Karo Batak	kuriŋ	striped, as a tiger
Toba Batak	huriŋ	designation for red and black patterned dogs and cats
Nias	kuri	speckled, spotted

31803

*kuriqik screech, as a hawk

9989

PWMP *kuriqik screech, as a hawk [disjunct: *kuliqik]

WMP
Cebuano	kulíʔik	a shrill, piercing shriek
Mongondow	kurik	screaming, yelling
Bare'e	kuri	cry of a certain bird

26830

*kuris₁ scurfy skin disease; scabies

3290

PAN *kuris₁ scurfy skin disease; scabies [doublet: *kudis]

Formosan
Paiwan	kuris	itching sores which leave dark spots on body
	ma-kuris	to have kuris
WMP
Tombonuwo	kuris	scabies, uninfected sores, rash
Malay (Brunei)	koris, kuris	scurfy skin disease
Iban	kuris	sores, ulcers; the itch
Sundanese	kuris	smallpox
Old Javanese	kuris	kind of scabious cutaneous eruption

26831

*kuris₂ scratch, mark with a line

3291

PWMP *kuris₂ scratch, mark with a line [disjunct: *kuRis]

WMP
Aklanon	kúlis	mark up, scratch
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kuris	a person’s fortune written in the palm of his hand, or the fortune of a chicken written in the scales of its feet
Malay	koris	to scratch with a point (of matches, of the scratch made by a mousedeer's tusk)

Note: Also Malay goris ‘scratch; mark made by drawing a hard point over a soft surface’. With root *-ris₂ ‘scratch a line’. Zorc (n.d.) gives PPh *kuris ‘mark, scratch’.

26838

*kur(i)siŋ cracked, peeling, of skin

3298

PWMP *kur(i)siŋ cracked, peeling, of skin

WMP
Ilokano	kursíŋ	peeling portion of epidermis
Malay	keréséŋ	crack just revealing what is inside; of a fissure in the rind of a fruit, a crack in the skin
Malay (Riau)	keréŋséŋ	crack just revealing what is inside; of a fissure in the rind of a fruit, a crack in the skin

31943

*kurit line, mark

10160

PPh *kurit line, mark [doublet: *kuris₂]

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kuhet	to make marks or lines on something (prime meaning is in reference to marks made on the face with lime, or garlic juice and salt, or mud; done for healing purposes or to keep away the spirits)
Ibaloy	korit	to make a line (as in underlining, drawing on the ground)
Bikol	kúrit	a line (as ‘as straight line’); streak
Agutaynen	korit	a line made with a pencil, ballpoint pen, or a sharp object

Note: Also Hanunóo kúlit ‘a short line or angle added to a character in the Hanunóo syllabary to change the vowel quality from ‘a’ to ‘i’ (if to the left) or ‘u’ (if to the right).

31828

*kurkur dig in the soil

10020

PAN *kurkur dig in the soil

Formosan
Amis	korkor	to dig in the soil
WMP
Tagalog	kulkól	shallow digging; poking the earth with a pointed stick or similar tool
Javanese	kukur-an	a scratched place
	kukur-kukur	to scratch an itch

26834

*kuru₁ word used to call chickens, etc.

3294

PMP *kuru₁ word used to call chickens, etc. [doublet: *kur]

WMP
Sangir	kuru	word by which chickens are called
Tae'	kuru	word by which chickens are called
Makassarese	kurru	word by which chickens are called
CMP
Paulohi	kuru	summon (chickens or the wind) with a clucking sound

26835

*kuru₂ thin, lean

3295

PWMP *kuru₂ thin, lean [doublet: *kurus]

WMP
Moken	kolo	thin, lean, withered; consumption
Sundanese	kuru	(of people, animals, the soil) lean, thin
Old Javanese	kuru	thinness
	a-kuru	thin, emaciated
Javanese	kuru	thin, undernourished
Balinese	kuru	weak, unable to stand (because of illness), exhausted

Note: Although the known distribution of this comparison is restricted to western Indonesia it is included since Moken does not appear to be especially close to any of the other languages.

26833

*kurud scrape

3293

PWMP *kurud scrape [doublet: *ke(r)ud]

WMP
Sundanese	kurud	scrape or shave off with a knife
Bare'e	kuru	sound of grating or scraping

Note: Also Hanunóo kuríd ‘rubbing, scraping, as in the removal of hair from a pig before barbecuing’.

32871

*kuruk to call chickens, cry for calling chickens

11329

PWMP *kuruk to call chickens, cry for calling chickens [doublet: *kuru]

WMP
Pangasinan	korók	to call chickens
Agutaynen	korok-on	to call a chicken
Makassarese	kuʔruʔ	clucking sound of hen used to call chickens or used by hen to call her chicks

31883

*kurukuru kind of dove or pigeon

10090

POC *kurukuru kind of dove or pigeon

OC
Tolai	kurukuru	sp. of bird
Nggela	kurukuru	species of white pigeon
Sa'a	kurukuru	(onom.) a wood pigeon
Tongan	kulukulu	kind of small bluish-green dove
	kūkū	to coo, of the kulukulu
Niue	kulukulu	the native dove

Note: A longer version of this comparison was noted by Clark (2011:318-319), who proposed an ambiguous reconstruction *(ku(r,l)u)ku(r,l)u ‘pigeon sp.’. However, the forms cited here support an unambiguous reduplication (Tongan *r > l rather than the more usual zero is rare, but recurrent, and some doublets are distinguished by these reflexes, as with POc *rua > Tongan ua ‘two’, but lua ‘two (in some combination forms)’.

31683

*kuruŋ cage, as for an animal; to enclose in a cage or pen

9847

PWMP *kuruŋ cage, as for an animal; to enclose in a cage or pen

WMP
Itbayaten	koroŋ	a place to corner pigs, pig-pen, sty
Ilokano	kuróŋ	jail; stockade; hell; animal cage
Casiguran Dumagat	kuluŋ	to surround, to enclose in a trap, to fence in
Tagalog	kulóŋ	surrounded; encircled; imprisoned; jailed; interned; caged
	i-kulóŋ	to cage; to shut up in a cage; to impound; to shut up in a pen or pound; to shut or keep in
Bikol	mag-kuroŋ	to pen up; to place in a cage or coop
Cebuano	kulúŋ	put in confinement of some sort
Ngaju Dayak	kuroŋ	locked up, caged in
Malay	kuroŋ	shutting in; confining; enclosed space
Karo Batak	ŋ-kuruŋ	shut up chickens in a pen
	kuruŋ-en	a pen or cage
Toba Batak	tar-huruŋ	be caught, made captive
	maŋ-huruŋ-hon	to make captive, lock up
Old Javanese	kuruŋ	cage
	juru kuruŋ	servant who looks after the cocks
Javanese	kuruŋ	caged, confined
	ŋuruŋ	to enclose, pen up; to put in parentheses
Balinese	ŋuruŋ	to cover over, put a basket over, put under a basket (esp. a game cock); to shut someone in
Sasak	kuruŋ	to put in a cage, to cage
Proto-Sangiric	*kuRuŋ	cage, enclosure
Sangir	kuhuŋ	pen, cage, animal enclosure
Toratán	kuuŋ	bamboo basket to enclose fowls

9848

PWMP *kuruŋ-an cage; stockage

WMP
Tagalog	kulúŋ-an ~ kuluŋ-án	corral; pen; cage; prison
Toba Batak	huruŋ-an	place of captivity; jail, prison
Old Javanese	kuruŋ-an	cage
	ku-kuruŋ-an	women reserved for the king
Javanese	kuruŋ-an	cage, enclosure
	kuruŋ-an manuk	bird cage
Sasak	kuruŋ-an	cage, enclosure

Note: Also Cebuano kurúŋ ‘chicken cage about 2-3’ high and just as deep and wide, usually set in rows abreast’.

31884

*kuruq noise, clamor

10091

PMP *kuruq noise, clamor

WMP
Iban	kuroh	snore, snoring
Malay	koroh	to snore
OC
Manam	guru	grunt
	mwa-guru	to shout, cry aloud
Motu	guru	noise, clamor
Dobuan	kuru-na	to whimper
Lau	kuru	to roar, the sound of thunder or surf

Note: Also Lau kurū ‘to reverberate, as sound of bomb or gun; to roar, as a waterfall’.

31885

*kururu₁ thunder

10092

POC *kururu₁ thunder

OC
Lou	kurur	thunder
Likum	kuruh	thunder
Bipi	kuxux	thunder
Wuvulu	ugugu	thunder
Halia	gururu	thunder
Lengo	ŋgururu	thunder
Lau	kururu	to roar, the sound of thunder or surf; to roar, as a waterfall

Note: Also Mailu koruru ‘thunder’, Wayan kurukuru ‘thunder’, Fijian kuru, kurukuru ‘to thunder’.

31999

*kururu₂ owl sp.

10223

POC *kururu₂ owl sp.

OC
Patpatar	kur-kuru	owl
Kilivila	kuru	owl
Teop	toto-kururu	Fearful owl: Nesasio solomonensis
Babatana	kururu	owl

Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Clark (2011:330-331). It is unclear whether forms such as Kilivila kuru have been shortened by haplology, or whether forms such as Babatana kururu are shortened forms of *kuru-kuru.

31684

*kurut curly-haired

9849

PMP *kurut curly-haired [disjunct: *kulut]

WMP
Ibaloy	kolot	curly hair
Tagalog	kulót	curl; a curled lock of hair; curly, wavy
Bikol	kurót	curly, wavy
	mag-kurót	to curl or wave
Cebuano	kulút	curly haired (as the hair of Negritos); for hair to become curly, cause it to do so
Maranao	korot	curly, kinky
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kurut	a curl of the hair; to curl the hair
Tiruray	kurut	to curl someone’s hair; (of hair) curly
CMP
Tetun	kurut	wrinkled, rough, curled
OC
Arosi	ʔuru	curly, of hair

26822

*kuRan scab

3282

PWMP *kuRan scab

WMP
Isneg	kugan	scab, crusted lesion
Hanunóo	kugán	scab
Iban	kurai	hard, rough patches of skin (Scott 1956); mottled, of skin (Richards 1981)

Note: Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *keRa(n,ŋ) ‘scab’. The gloss given by Richards (1981) suggests that Iban kurai may reflect *kuray ‘mottled’.

30787

*kuRapu a fish, the sea perch, giant rock cod, giant grouper: Epinephelus spp.

8519

PMP *kuRapu a fish, the sea perch, giant rock cod, giant grouper: Epinephelus spp. [doublet: *kuRapuq]

WMP
Yami	kozapo	hawkfish sp.
Itbayaten	korapo	a fish, the grouper: Epinephelus fario (Thunberg)
Ilokano	kurapó	kind of speckled marine fish
Tiruray	kurafu	a large saltwater fish: Epinephelus spp.
Malay	ikan kerapu	sea perch: Serranus spp.; a very large fish of the Scorpaenidae about which many legends exist
Sundanese	kurapu	name of a sea fish
Sangir	kuhapu	kind of marine fish
Palauan	ksaw	flower cod; carpet cod (type of grouper): Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
OC
Mussau	uou(na)	giant black rock cod
Wogeo	kura	giant grouper, Epinephelus spp.
Numbami	kulawi	Epinephelus spp.
Nggela	gulavu	a species of large fish, young mbanga (a species of large fish, able to swallow a man)
Kwaio	ulafu	giant grouper (Epinephelus spp.)
Lau	ʔulafu	species of large fish, up to six feet long, brown or blue spots, grouper
Toqabaqita	ʔulafu	grouper spp.: Brown-spot grouper: Epinephelus chlorostigma; Brown-stripe grouper: Epinephelus morrhus; Blue-tailed grouper: Epinephelus microdon; Giant grouper: Epinephelus mangiscuttis
'Āre'āre	urahu	a fish (taboo for women and children)
Sa'a	ulehu	a fish, Oligorus gigas; six varieties of ulehu are named; the ulehu is caught with a bait of ‘a‘awa, walking fish; name appears in proverbs describing greediness (‘to eat like the ulehu’)
Arosi	ʔurahu	a species of fish, Oligorus gigas, famous in tales
Gilbertese	kuau	a fish: Epinephelus corallicota
Wayan	kʷavu	fish taxon: probably Epinephelus hoedti (Serranidae), a rock-cod

Note: Also Tagalog kulapó ‘sea perch; a species of grouper’ (< Malay), Sundanese gərpu ‘name of a sea fish’. Like Tagalog kulapó, Ilokano kurapó may be a Malay loanword.

Although the reflexes of this term refer to various types of groupers or rod cod, certain clues suggest that *kuRapu referred specifically to the giant grouper. This is one of the largest of all reef fish, reaching a maximum length of nearly nine feet, and a weight of some 880 pounds. Whether they are dangerous to humans or not, fish of this size that are readily encountered in the vicinity of coral reefs, must leave a strong visual and psychological impression on divers, and this is implied by comments in the glosses for Malay kerapu and Arosi ʔurahu, each of which states that the giant grouper or rock cod is the subject of legends and tales. Osmond (2011) provides extensive documentation for the Oceanic reflexes of this term, and I have drawn some of my material from her, although some of the forms she cites are clearly chance resemblances, as with Titan apweu ‘giant rock cod’, as against the expected **kuah or **kuyah.

30788

*kuRapuq a fish, the sea perch, giant rock cod, giant grouper: Epinephelus spp.

8520

PWMP *kuRapuq a fish, the sea perch, giant rock cod, giant grouper: Epinephelus spp. [doublet: *kuRapu]

WMP
Mapun	kuhapuʔ	grouper
Sama Linungan	kuhapoʔ	perch and rock-cod, family Epinephelidae
	kuhapoʔ dapak	giant perch: Lates calcarifer
Malay	ikan kerapoh	sea perch: Serranus spp.; a very large fish of the Scorpaenidae about which many legends exist

26823

*kuRaw edible marine fish, the threadfin

3283

PMP *kuRaw edible marine fish

WMP
Ibatan	koyaw	a kind of fish resembling the threadfin
Ilokano	kúgaw	fish resembling the puróŋ (white, elongated fresh water fish), but with smaller scales; its meat is esteemed
Cebuano	kugáw, kúgaw	fingerling of the milkfish at the stage 4-8 inches in length: Chanos chanos
Malay	ikan kurau	medium-sized threadfin, Polynemus spp.
Sundanese	kuro	kind of sea fish

10179

POC *kuRo marine fish sp.

OC
Nggela	gulo	fish sp.
Rotuman	ʔuo	bonefish: Albula sp.

29909

(Formosan only)

*kuRi rake

6580

PAN *kuRi rake

Formosan
Thao	kulhi	rake (something)
Puyuma	kuri	rake

6581

PAN *ka-kuRi a rake

Formosan
Thao	ka-kulhi	a rake
Puyuma	ka-kuri	a rake

6582

PAN *k<um>uRi to rake

Formosan
Thao	k<m>ulhi	to rake
Puyuma	k<em>uri	to rake

26827

*kuRiat creak, squeak

3287

PWMP *kuRiat creak, squeak [doublet: *kuRiut]

WMP
Ilokano	koriát	cricket, believed to be bad as they enter the ears and may cause hardship or death
Cebuano	kugíut	creak, squeak
Malay	keriat	creaking of a door
	keriat-keriut	persistent creaking

Note: Also Cebuano kagíit ‘high-pitched squeak or creaking noise caused by friction’, Maranao koriak ‘cry’, Manggarai keliak ‘scream, shrill cry’.

26829

*kuRis scratch, mark with a line

3289

PWMP *kuRis scratch, mark with a line [disjunct: *kuris₂]

WMP
Kankanaey	kúgis-en	to line, mark with a line; draw a line on with a pencil, one's nail, etc.
Malay	koris	to scratch with a point (of matches, of the scratch made by a mousedeer's tusk)

31315

*kuRiut creak, squeak

9386

PWMP *kuRiut creak, squeak [doublet: *kuRiat]

WMP
Cebuano	kugíut	creak, squeak
Malay	kəriat-kəriut	persistent creaking
	keriut	to creak, as door on hinges or oars in oarlocks

Note: Also Cebuano kagíit ‘high-pitched squeak or creaking noise caused by friction’, Maranao koriak ‘cry’, Manggarai keliak ‘scream, shrill cry’.

26840

*kusik scream of a monkey

3300

PMP *kusik scream of a monkey

WMP
Tiruray	kusik	a monkey's cry; (of a monkey) to cry
Karo Batak	kusik-kusik	whisper
Old Javanese	kusik	rushing, rustling, making a confused sound, murmuring
Javanese	kusik	unrest, disorder
Mongondow	kusik	scream or call of a monkey
CMP
Manggarai	hucik	sound made by a monkey, chatter

31146

*kuskus₁ rising of smoke or steam

9137

PWMP *kuskus₁ rising of smoke or steam

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kakus-an	funnel-shaped basket woven of rattan in which rice in a large pot is steamed
Malay	kukus	steaming; cooking in steam; distilling (rice is usually boiled in water in Malaya; in Java it is often placed in a conical basket (kukus-an) in the upper part of a tall copper boiler (dandang) and is cooked by the steam from the water boiling below)
Sundanese	kukus	dish with incense or other redolent substances; what is burned as incense
	ŋukus	to smoke something with incense or other redolent substance (as a sarong, etc.)
Old Javanese	kukus	smoke, spray, cloud (of dust, pollen, etc.)
	(m)a-kukus	with smoke, smoking
	k<um>ukus	smoking, like smoke
	kukus-an	cone-shaped basket of woven bamboo in which rice is steamed
Javanese	kukus	smoke, steam
	k<um>ukus	to give off smoke or steam; comet, shooting star
Balinese	kukus	steam, vapor, smoke
	ŋuskus	to cook rice in steam
	kuskus	to cook rice in steam
	kuskus-an	a basket for steaming rice
Sasak	kukus	steam; steamed
	ŋukus	to steam
	kukus-an	the basket in which rice is steamed
Totoli	kukus	steam
Dondo	kukus	steam
Dampelas	kukus	steam
Banggai	kukus	rising of smoke

9138

PWMP *kuskus-an₂ basketlike container used to steam rice

WMP
Ngaju Dayak	kakus-an	a triangular basket woven of rattan in which rice is cooked in a pot by steaming
Sundanese	kukus-an	incense dish
Old Javanese	kukus-an	cone-shaped basket of woven bamboo in which rice is steamed
Javanese	kukus-an	cone-shaped utensil of woven bamboo in which rice is steamed over boiling water
Balinese	kuskus-an	a basket woven of bamboo, cone-shaped, in which rice is steamed till it is cooked
Pendau	kukus-an	steam

Note: Some of the forms cited here may have been borrowed from Old Javanese, but this seems unlikely for Banggai kukus, and the comparison is thus accepted as valid.

31843

*kuskus₂ to scrape out

10040

PWMP *kuskus₂ to scrape out

WMP
Itbayaten	ipa-koskos	to let somebody scrub
	koskos-en	to remove ashes (from the stove)
Ilokano	ag-k<an>uskús	to rub the head with something rough
	kuskus-en	to scrape
Bontok	kuskús	to strip bark from wood
Pangasinan	koskós	to grate in shreds
Ayta Abellan	koskos	to scrub the floor with a coconut husk
Agutaynen	mag-koskos	to rub, scour something, such as a pot or floor
Palawano	kuskus-en	to rub (as in rubbing someone’s back to remove dirt)
Cebuano	k<al>uskús	scrape or scratch to remove something from a surface; scratch the hair hard with the hands
Maranao	koskos	rub, scrub
Iban	kukus	to scrape out

10041

PPh *kuskus-an₂ to scrape or scrub out, remove by scraping

WMP
Itbayaten	koskos-an	to clean stove (by removing accumulated ashes)
Kankanaey	kuskús-an	to scrape; to fleece, to strip (in the last meaning applied to robbers, gamblers, etc.)
Palawano	kuskus-an	brush

26843

*kusu₁ rub two things together, create friction, as sticks to make fire, or the hands

3305

PMP *kusu₁ rub two things together, create friction, as sticks to make fire, or the hands [doublet: *gusuk]

WMP
Maranao	koso	rub palms of hands together, rub off, wash off stain
Binukid	kusu	to rumple, rub (something between the hands or knuckles); to rub in (something with the hands)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kusu	rub something between the hands
Old Javanese	kusu	make fire by friction
	a-kusu	make fire by rubbing two sticks together
Balinese	kusu	make fire by rubbing two sticks together
Proto-Sangiric	*kusu	to rub between hands
Sangir	kusu	rub between the clenched fists (as in washing clothes)
	ma-ŋusu	rub between the clenched fists, as in washing clothes
CMP
Ngadha	kusu	rub, wipe or wash off

Note: Also Aklanon kusoɁ ‘to crumple, crush; rub together (as when doing laundry)’. Possibly a product of chance. Zorc (1971) posits PPh *kusu(q) ‘crumple, crush; rub’.

32038

*kusu₂ to spit

10267

POC *kusu₂ to spit

OC
Labu	kusu	to spit
Muyuw	gus	to spit, spray spit in magic ritual
Babatana	ku-kusu	to spit
Woleaian	kut(u)	spit, spittle; to spit

Note: Also Tongan kisu ‘to spit forcefully, to spit out’ (expected **kuhu) A somewhat longer version of this comparison was proposed by Ross and Osmond (2016:282).

30066

*kusupe rat

6768

POC *kusupe rat [doublet: *kasupe]

OC
Seimat	usuh	rat
Ririo	kuj	rat
Ghari	husuve	rat
Talise	gusuve	rat
Hiw	gusuwə	rat
Axamb	nə-xasu	rat
Nakanamanga	kusue	rat
	kusue	rat
Wayan	kucuve	rat, mouse

26842

*kusut tangled, disordered, untidy

3304

PWMP *kusut tangled, disordered, untidy

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	kusut	wrinkled (of cloth which is wrinkled, unfolded or not ironed)
Tagalog	kusót	rumpled
Mansaka	kosot	wrinkle (as in clothes)
Tausug	kusut	wrinkled, not smooth, not pressed, not tidy (as of clothing and the like)
Malay	kusut	tangled or disordered (of hair); difficult to unravel (of a situation)
Sundanese	kusut	confused, disarranged, untidy, chaos
Old Javanese	kusut	in disorder, disturbed, dishevelled, not done up (hanging down, hair), unkempt
Javanese	kusut	distraught, frantic, hard-pressed
	ŋusut-ake	in turmoil, in a chaotic state
Sasak	kusut	tangled (of thread)

Note: Also Ilokano kosó ‘disorderly, disarranged, disarrayed, tumbled, messed, mussed up, dishevelled, crumpled, tousled’, Tagalog gusót ‘crumpled, entangled, confused’, Tontemboan kusu ‘sloppy, careless in work, especially in farming’.

26839

*kuSa work

3299

PAN *kuSa work

Formosan
Pazeh	kukusa	'to work in the field' (not: 'to work in general')
Siraya (Gravius)	-kua	to move, be at
Siraya (Utrecht ms.)	-kua	to move, be at
WMP
Isneg	mag-kuwa	work
CMP
Palu'e	kua	work
Sika	ua	work

30315

*kuSkuS₁ claw, talon, fingernail

7272

PAN *kuSkuS₁ claw, talon, fingernail

Formosan
Thao	kuku	fingernail; talon of raptorial birds
Bunun	kuskus	fingernail

7273

PMP *kukuh claw, talon, fingernail

WMP
Itbayaten	kokoh	nail (of fingers and toes); claw
Ilokano	kukó	nail (of finger or toe); claw; hoof
Itawis	kukú	fingernail, toenail
	mé-kuku	to cut a fingernail or toenail
Bontok	kukú	the nail of one’s finger or toe
Kankanaey	kokó	nail, claw
Ifugaw	kukú	fingernail, toenail
Ifugaw (Batad)	kuku	fingernail, toenail of a monkey, person; the claw of an animal, bat, bird, chicken
Casiguran Dumagat	kukó	fingernail, toenail, hoof; to clip off the fingernails
Ibaloy	koko	fingernail, toenail, claw
	man-koko	to clip the fingernails
Pangasinan	kokó	claw; finger- or toenail
	man-kokó	to cut one’s nails
Sambal (Botolan)	kóko	fingernail
Ayta Abellan	kokoh	fingernail, toenail
Kapampangan	kukú	toe and finger nails
	ma-ŋuku	cut one’s fingernails
Tagalog	kukó	fingernail, toenail; hoof; claw; talon
Bikol	kukó	fingernail, toenail
	hiŋ-kuku-hón	to clean the nails
Hanunóo	kukú	nails (of the body); claws
Masbatenyo	kukó	fingernail; toenail; claw; hoof
Aklanon	kukú(h)	fingernail; toenail
Agutaynen	koko	fingernail, toenail
Hiligaynon	kukú	finger or toe nail
Cebuano	kukú	fingernails, toenails; claws, hooves; get caught or hit by the claws
	kukh-án	having claws; grasping, inconsiderate of others’ needs
Mapun	kuku	fingernail, toenail, claw; hoof
Yakan	kukku	nail (of finger or toe); claw (of animals and birds)
Tausug	kukku	fingernail, toenail, claw; hoof
	kukuh-an	having long fingernails or toenails
Iban	kuku	claw; fingernail
Salako	kulu	fingernail
Malay	kuku	claw, talon; hoof; fingernail
Mori Atas	kuku	fingernail
Wawonii	kuku	fingernail
Palauan	kuk	fingernail, toenail, claw
	kəku-l	his/her fingernail
CMP
Komodo	wuku	fingernail, claw
Manggarai	huku	fingernail, toenail, claw
Rembong	kuku	fingernail, toenail, claw
Lamboya	kuk	claw
Anakalangu	kuku	claw
Hawu	kuu	fingernail; hoof
Rotinese	kuku	finger
Tetun	kuku-n	nail, claw, hoof
Leti	kuku	fingernail, claw
Gah	wuku	fingernail
Batu Merah	kuku	fingernail
OC
Lakalai	la-kuku	finger; toe; leg of crab; twig or small branch
Numbami	kuku	finger, toe
Nggela	gugu	finger or toenail; hoof
Gilbertese	uki	fingernail, toenail, claw
Pohnpeian	kihk	nail, as a finger or toenail
Mokilese	kiki-n	fingernail, toenail
Chuukese	kkú	fingernail, toenail, claw
Puluwat	kkúú	nails, claws, foot (of chicken), leg (of centipede)
Woleaian	kiu	fingernail, toenail, claw
Wayan	kuku	nail (of finger or toe), claw (of dog, cat, fowl, etc.), hoof (of pig, cow, etc.)
	kuku qwāqwā	hard-worker; hard-working (lit. ‘strong/powerful nails’)
Fijian	kuku	nail of finger or toe

7274

PAN *k<aN>uSkuS claw, talon, fingernail

Formosan
Kavalan	qnuqus	fingernail, toenail
Amis	kanoos	fingernail, toenail, claw
Amis (Kiwit)	kanuʔus	fingernail, claw
Paiwan	k<alʸ>uskus-an	fingernail, toenail, claw

7275

PMP *k<an>uhkuh claw, talon, fingernail

WMP
Maranao	kanoko	fingernail, toenail, hoof, claw
Tiruray	kenugew	claws, fingernails, toenails or hooves; to trim the nails
Tboli	knugu	fingernail
Sangir	kanuku	fingernail
Mongondow	konuku	fingernail, claw
Tae'	kanuku	fingernail
Makassarese	kanuku	nail, claw, hoof

Note: Also SUBC kinuku ‘fingernail’, Manggarai wuku ‘fingernail, toenail, claw’. The gemination in Yakan and Tausug presumably results from preconsonantal *h.

26841

*kuSkuS₂ scrape

3301

PAN *kuSkuS₂ scrape

Formosan
Sakizaya	mu-kuskus	to scratch
Amis	koskos	to scratch one's body
Thao	ka-kushkush	tool of wood or metal used to scrape rice from the bottom of the pot
Paiwan	kuskus	a scraper

7266

PMP *kuhkuh scrape

WMP
Itbayaten	kohkoh	dig out the ground
	mi-chohkoh	dig out the ground (as pigs do)
Ayta Abellan	kohkoh	to scratch
Cebuano	kukhú	scrape, scratch off something that sticks to a surface with a thrusting motion
Mapun	kuku	to shave (as whiskers, hair)
	ta-kuku	razor

3302

PAN *k<ar>uSkuS scrape, scratch something from a surface

Formosan
Paiwan	k<ar>uskus	to have sound of scraping

7267

PWMP *k<ar>uhkuh scrape, scratch something from a surface

WMP
Cebuano	k<al>ukhú	scrape, scratch off something that sticks to a surface

7268

PAN *k<um>uSkuS to scrape

Formosan
Thao	k<um>ushkush	to scrape out, as rice that sticks to the pot; scratch up with backward movements, as a dog scratching up the ground
Paiwan	k<m>uskus	to scratch, scrape; remove hair from pig with bamboo knife

32000

*kuta staple food (?)

10224

POC *kuta staple food (?)

OC
Lukep (Pono)	kuta	banana cultivar
Ubir	ut	greater yam
Gapapaiwa	uta	yam type
Gumawana	kuta	chew sugarcane
Molima	ʔuta	to bite, to chew, as sugarcane
	ʔutaʔuta	fiveleaf yam: Dioscorea pentaphylla
Tolo	kuta	eat

Note: A somewhat longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Ross (2008g:42), who marked it with the uncertain gloss ‘staple food’ or ‘eat’ ?

33644

*kuták to cackle, of a hen

12387

PPh *kuták to cackle, of a hen

WMP
Ilokano	kuták	the cackling noise of a hen
	ag-kuták	to cackle (hen)
Pangasinan	koták	to cackle (of chickens)
Ayta Abellan	kotak	cackling of a hen
Aklanon	kuták-kuták	cackle (sound of chickens)

26845

*kutaña ask, inquire about

3307

PMP *kutaña ask, inquire about [doublet: *utaña]

WMP
Aklanon	kutána	to ask, question, inquire, query
	paŋ-utána	question, inquiry
Cebuano	kutána	ask a question, inquire about
Basap	ŋən-taña	to ask
Lauje	utaña	ask
Bare'e	kutana	ask, inquire, inform
Tae'	kutana	ask about
Buginese	utana	ask, inquire about
SHWNG
Taba	kutan	ask a question
Buli	utan	ask
	fa-utan	ask about something
Numfor	f-uken	ask

3308

PWMP *maR-kutaña ask, inquire about

WMP
[Malay	ber-taña	to ask, inquire]
Buginese	mak-kutana	ask, inquire about

Note: Also Kapampangan kutaŋ ‘question’, Malay taña ‘interrogation’, Makassarese kutaʔnaŋ ‘ask for or about’. Cf. Mills (1975:742) Proto-South Sulawesi *kutana ‘ask’.

31886

*kutay kind of citrus fruit, Philippine orange

10093

PPh *kutay kind of citrus fruit, Philippine orange

WMP
Itbayaten	kotay	a citrus tree: Citrus nobilis Lour.
Ivatan	kutay	native orange
Ibatan	kotay	a tangerine tree or fruit: Citrus nobilis
	ma-kotay	to be plentiful, of tangerines
Isneg	kuttáy	the orange: Citrus aurantium L.

30379

(Formosan only)

*kuti vulva, vagina

7453

PAN *kuti vulva, vagina

Formosan
Papora	huci ~ kuci	vulva
Thao	kuti	vulva, vagina
Bunun	kuti	vulva, vagina
Puyuma	kuti	vulva
Paiwan	kutji	vulva

31844

*kútib move the lips rapidly, as in gnawing or nibbling on something

10042

PPh *kútib move the lips rapidly, as in gnawing or nibbling on something [doublet: *kutím]

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kútib-kútib	to gnaw
	kutíb-an	to nibble at
Ibaloy	i-kotib	to whisper something to someone as a secret, esp. in public
Romblomanon	kutib-kutib	someone murmurs
Aklanon	kútib	to mutter
Cebuano	kútib	for the lips to move rapidly, as in mumbling, eating, praying, or chewing watermelon seeds

31742

*kutil wart

9910

PWMP *kutil wart

WMP
Tagalog	kuntíl	uvula; tip of hanging palate; protruding wart or fleshy growth on the skin
Malay	sa-kutil	a very small piece (picked out); a crumb of
	kutil-an mata	eye-corner (where tear-drops gather)
Old Javanese	kutil-ən	suffering from pimples (?)
Javanese	kutil	wart, mole, skin blemish
	kutil-en	to have or get warts; (euphemistic) to have or get smallpox

31845

*kutím to nibble at, peel with the teeth

10043

PPh *kutím to nibble at, peel with the teeth [doublet: *kútib]

WMP
Ilokano	ag-kutím	to peel with the teeth; uproot with the teeth; remove the outer shell of nuts, etc. with the teeth; purse the lips
Bontok	kutím-ən	to husk grains of unripe rice between the fingers for eating raw; unripe rice picked for eating
Kankanaey	kutím-en	to peel young palay (rice in the field)
Ibaloy	me-ŋotim (< kotim)	to remove the husks from rice with the fingers and teeth in order to eat the grain raw (as rats and birds, or those who fancy freshly harvested rice)
Ayta Abellan	kotim	to nibble (as at watermelon seeds)
Cebuano	kutím	to nibble small hard seeds (as rats nibbling rice grains fast, or someone chewing on dried melon seeds)

31955

*kutiŋ kind of beetle or bedbug

10174

PWMP *kutiŋ kind of beetle or bedbug

WMP
Cebuano	kutíŋ	bedbug; be infested with bedbugs
	kutiŋ-ún	be infested with bedbugs
Karo Batak	kutiŋ-kutiŋ	kind of small beetle on the young leaves of the jambe (kind of pumpkin or gourd)
Toba Batak	si-hutiŋ-hutiŋ	kind of black ant

31846

*kutiŋ cat, kitten

10044

PWMP *kutiŋ cat, kitten

WMP
Ilokano	kutíŋ	kitten
Pangasinan	kotíŋ	kitten
Bikol	kutíŋ	kitten
Cebuano	kutíŋ	kitten
Tausug	kutíŋ	a cat
Toba Batak	hutiŋ	cat

Note: Also Malay kuciŋ ‘cat; generic for small Felidae’. The history of this term in the Austronesian world remains unclear. Although it applies almost exclusively to domestic cats today, it may have had earlier applications to wild felines.

26855

*ku(n)tit follow, come after (in sequence)

3318

PWMP *ku(n)tit follow, come after (in sequence)

WMP
Ilokano	kútit	buttocks, rump
	kutít	last (in number, in a row, etc.)
Isneg	kutít	last of a litter
Malay (Jakarta)	kuntit	go backwards (Wilkinson 1959); follow from behind (Chaer 1976)
Sundanese	kuntit	run after someone, follow
Javanese	kuṇṭét	stunted; unable to achieve normal growth (= be left behind in development?)

26846

*kutkut₁ dig

3309

PWMP *kutkut₁ dig

WMP
Ilokano	kutkót	a pit, hole
	ag-kutkót	to dig, scratch, exhume
	kutkut-én	to corrode; wear away (soil); erode; cut a groove in; dig; exhume
Balangaw	otʔot	to scratch
Ifugaw	kutkút	to make a small, superficial hole by scratching (applied to dogs, rats, mice)
Ibaloy	kotkot	to dig something up in the manner of animals, with paws or hands
	i-kotkot	to bury something in this manner
Pangasinan	kotkót	to dig, inter
Tagalog	mag-kutkót	to scratch, pick or dig out something with the paws or the fingers
Bikol	kútkút	dig in, dig up
Buhid	kutkút	to dig
Hanunóo	kútkut	a hole in the ground
	mag-kutkút	dig (a hole)
Aklanon	kútkut	dig, excavate; gnaw at, said of rats
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kutkut	to scratch; a rat’s lair in the ground
Bintulu	kukut	dig

Note: Possibly identical to *ku[Ct]ku[Ct] ‘claw, scratch’ (Blust 1970). Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *kutkut ‘claw, scratch; dig into’.

31685

*kutkut₂ scrape off

9850

PAN *kutkut₂ scrape off

Formosan
Amis	kotkot	to use metal to scrape
WMP
Cebuano	kutkut	scrape off something hard by rubbing on it back and forth

Note: Possibly identical to PWMP *kutkut₁ ‘dig’.

32039

*kutu break, cut off, sever

10268

POC *kutu₂ break, cut off, sever

OC
Duke of York	kutu	cut, separate; cut off the retreat of a party in war
Vitu	hutu	break; broken

Note: A considerably longer version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond, Pawley and Ross (2003:247), who cite many forms in violation of well-known sound correspondences, including Marino kusu 'sever, cut off, break (rope-like object)', where Ross (1988:219) gives t and k/__C as the only known reflexes of *t, and most egregiously, Fijian ŋutu ‘to cut off, to sever’, taking orthographic gutu as representing a word with [ŋg] instead of [ŋ]. Possibly a chance resemblance.

31887

*kutug shake something to determine its unseen contents

10094

PWMP *kutug shake something to determine its unseen contents

WMP
Ilokano	kutóg	shaking
	ag-kutog-kutóg	to shake repeatedly (contents in a jar, passengers in a car, etc.)
	kutug-én	to shake the contents
Toba Batak	maŋ-hutuk	to shake something, as a coconut in order to hear whether it still has water

Note: Also Toba Batak maŋ-husuk ‘to shake something, as a coconut in order to hear whether it still has water’. Possibly a chance resemblance.

31888

*kutuk₁ oath; curse

10095

PWMP *kutuk₁ oath; curse

WMP
Iban	kutok	to blame
Malay	kutok	curse; malison; accursed or damned (as a term of abuse)
Rejang	kutuʔ	an oath, a vow
Mongondow	kutuk	oath; swear word, curse
	kutuk-on	to swear, to curse

Note: Possibly a Malay loanword, although Malay loans normally are scattered over a number of languages, and this apparent cognate set has been found nowhere else to date.

31889

*kutuk₂ to knock, pound

10096

PWMP *kutuk₂ to knock, pound

WMP
Ilokano	kutók	a knock, knocking
	ag-kutók	to knock at the door
	ag-kutók-kutók	to rattle contents
Bare'e	kutu	make a clicking or cracking sound, as the finger joints when they are pressed between crossed hands and forced to pop

Note: With root *-tuk₂ ‘knock, pound, beat’.

26856

*ku(n)tus break under tension

3319

PMP *ku(n)tus break under tension

WMP
Tiruray	kuntus	(of string or rope) to break because of excess tension
CMP
Buruese	kutu-h	break off, sever (as a vine)

Note: With root *-tus ‘break under tension’.

29959

(Formosan only)

*kuya defect, bad, defective

6642

PAN *kuya₁ bad, defective

Formosan
Tsou	kuzo	bad; not like, not want; not do gladly; sickness
Paiwan	kuya	defect; rip, tear
	na-kuya	bad, defective, dangerous (as a person)
	sa-kuya	bad-tasting
	ma-pu-kuya	ritually impure
	malʸe-kuya	in disorder, broken; bad weather
	k<m>uya	to damage
Paiwan (Western)	na-kuya-n	disability

Note: I have cited an exceptionally large number of affixed forms of this base in Paiwan in order to better tease out the semantic range of the concept designation by the term. Given its very limited attestation it is possible that this is a chance resemblance, but the evidence we have suggests that the comparison is valid. This form was replaced in PMP by *zaqet. This comparison was first proposed by Tsuchida (1976:175).

31743

*kuykúy₁ chigger or similar insect

9911

PPh *kuykúy₁ chigger or similar insect

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	koykóy	a tiny reg bug, similar to a chigger (which burrows into the skin and causes intense itching); to pick the bug out of the skin
Bikol	kuykóy	beetle sp.

31744

*kuykúy₂ scrape something off a surface so as to uncover it

9912

PPh *kuykúy₂ scrape something off a surface so as to uncover it

WMP
Bontok	kuykúy	to transfer from one place to another by scraping with the hands, as when levelling soil or scraping rice from a plate to a pot
Agutaynen	mag-koykoy	for an animal to dig in the ground with their claws; for a person to dig in the dirt with their hands; to dig away the dirt or sand covering or surrounding an object
Cebuano	kuykúy	dig up something by scratching away things that cover it

26850

*kuyu shabby looking, in disarray, of the feathers of fowls

3313

PWMP *kuyu shabby looking, in disarray, of the feathers of fowls [doublet: *kuyut]

WMP
Malay	kuyu	woe-begone, off-color
	ayam kuyu	a seedy-looking fowl
Tae'	kuyu	be all ruffled up, of the feathers of a sick chicken or a fighting cock after prolonged combat

30874

*kúyug to lead in walking; to accompany

8699

PPh *kúyug to lead in walking; to accompany

WMP
Ilokano	kúyog	to go together
	ag-pa-kúyog	to look for a companion
	ka-kúyog	companion, escort
	k<um>úyog	to go with, accompany; escort; attend
Agta (Dupaningan)	i-kuyóg	to accompany, go with
Ifugaw	kúyug	to walk in front, to take the lead of a traveling group, to lead on, precede the others as leader
Casiguran Dumagat	k<um>uyog	to accompany, to go with
Bikol	mag-kúyog	to obey, to comply with
	ma-kúyog	obedient, mindful, heedful
Hanunóo	kúyug	going together (with someone), accompanying (someone); accompaniment, companionship
	k<um>úyug	go with, accompany (someone)
Aklanon	kúyog	to assemble, congregate, group together
	ku<eu>yog-án	place of assembly, meeting grounds
Cebuano	kúyug	go together with, accompany; abide with the decision of the majority; companion; together with
	kuyug-kúyug	gang mate, regular companion; going together with a gang regularly
Maranao	koyog	to accompany
Mansaka	koyog	to accompany; to go with
Tiruray	kuyug	a follower of a leader; to follow a leader

26847

*kuyuk sound used to call puppies

3310

PWMP *kuyuk sound used to call puppies

WMP
Malay (Brunei)	koyok	any dog
Malay	koyok	cur
Malay (Orang Laut)	koyok	any dog
Dairi-Pakpak Batak	kuyuk kuyuk	way of calling a puppy
Sasak	kuyuk	sound used to call puppies

26851

*kuyuŋ shake, sway, stagger

3314

PWMP *kuyuŋ shake, sway, stagger [doublet: *huyuŋ, *Ruyuŋ]

WMP
Maranao	koioŋ	to shake (as a tree)
Tiruray	kuyuŋ	shake something that is set in the ground, as a tree or house
Malagasy	hozona	shaking, trembling, agitation

26848

*kuyup dripping wet

3311

PWMP *kuyup dripping wet

WMP
Malay	basah kuyup	sopping wet
Tae'	ma-kuyuʔ-kuyuʔ	dripping wet (as from having been caught in the rain)

Note: Also Tae' ma-kuduʔ-kuduʔ ‘dripping wet (as from having been caught in the rain)’.

26849

*kuyut shabby looking, in disarray, of the feathers of fowls

3312

PWMP *kuyut shabby looking, in disarray, of the feathers of fowls [doublet: *kuyu]

WMP
Ilokano	kuyót	stand all shrunk up, of sick fowls
Cebuano	kuyut	for the flesh to sag due to old age
Mansaka	kuyut	shrivelled (as a person’s skin)
Malay	kuyut	woe-begone, off-color
	ayam kuyu	a seedy-looking fowl

26857

*ku(n)zit busy, diligent

3320

PWMP *ku(n)zit busy, diligent

WMP
Ilokano	kudít	diligent, active, energetic, assiduous, restless, unsettled, unquiet
Malay	kunjaŋ-kunjit	bustling about (as broker on business bent)

26852

*kuzut pinch

3315

PWMP *kuzut pinch [disjunct: *kezut]

WMP
Tagalog	kurót	pinch
Kayan	kujut	a pinch of something (quantity); a sample; a pinch with several fingers

TOP ka ke ki ko ku kw

kwarara

32001

*kwarara shark sp.

10225

POC *kwarara shark sp.

OC
Motu	karava	kind of fish
Dobuan	kʷalala	shark (generic)
Fijian (Rakiraki)	karawa	mako shark: Isurus

Note: A much longer version of this comparison was proposed by Osmond (2011:32).

a b c C d e g h i j k l m n N ñ ŋ o p q r R s S t u w y z

Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition
Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel
www.trussel2.com/ACD
2010: revision 6/21/2020
email: Blust (content) – Trussel (production)
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