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Updated: 6/21/2020

Austronesian Comparative Dictionary

Cognate Sets

*ŋ

ŋa ŋe ŋi ŋo ŋu

30813

*ŋa linker for multiples of ten

8563

PMP *ŋa linker for multiples of ten

WMP
Ilokano	sa-ŋa-púlo	ten
Isneg	sa-ŋa-púlo	ten
Itneg (Binongan)	sa-ŋa-pólo	ten
Ibaloy	showa-n polo	ten
Kapampangan	a-dwa-ŋ-pulu	twenty
Remontado	sá-ŋ-pu ʔ	ten
Kalamian Tagbanwa	du-rua-ŋ-puluk	twenty
Palawan Batak	sa-ŋ-púlok	ten
Palawano	sä-ŋ-ribu	1,000
Aborlan Tagbanwa	sa-ŋ-pulu	ten
Tausug	ha-ŋ-puʔ	ten
Sama (Pangutaran)	sa-ŋ-puʔ	ten
Kadazan Dusun	duvo ŋo-opod	twenty
Murut (Timugon)	ruo ŋo-opor	twenty
Tingalan (West)	duo-ŋa-puluh	twenty
Kelabit	duəh ŋəh puluʔ	twenty
Simalur	ənəmə ŋa ulu	sixty
Nias	ŋa-fulu	ten
Mentawai	ŋa	‘suffix’ for numerals
Enggano	ha	numeral ligature
Old Javanese	rwa-ŋ-puluh	twenty
Madurese	pittu-ŋ-pulu	seventy
Balinese	dwa-ŋ-dasa	twenty
	za-ŋa-vuluku	ten
Tondano	rua ŋa-puluʔ	twenty
Tontemboan	sa-ŋa-puluʔ	ten
Banggai	so-ŋ-ulo	ten
Tae'	sa-ŋ-pulo	ten
Mandar	dua-ŋ-atus	200
CMP
Kambera	ha-ŋa-hu	hundred
Hawu	he-ŋ-uru	ten
Dhao/Ndao	ca-ŋ-uru	ten
OC
Lou	sa-ŋa-ul	ten
	so-ŋ-ot	100
Penchal	sa-ŋa-hul	ten
	sa-ŋ-ɨt	100
Loniu	(ma-)-so-ŋ-on	ten
	(ma)-sa-ŋ-at	100
Nali	(ma-)-so-ŋ-uy	ten
	(ma)-sa-ŋ-at	100
Bipi	sa-ŋ-on	ten
	sa-ŋ-ak	100
Mussau	sa-ŋa-ulu	ten
Lavongai	sa-ŋa-uli	ten
Tigak	sa-ŋa-ulu-ŋ	ten
Nalik	sa-ŋa-flu	ten
Mendak	sa-ŋa-un	ten
Pala	sa-ŋa-hul	ten
Label	sa-ŋa-hulu	ten
Vitu	za-ŋa-vulu	ten
Arop	sa-ŋa-ul	ten
Lusi	sa-ŋa-olu	ten
Motu	a-hui	ten
Gabadi	rua a-vui	twenty
Hoava	tolo-ŋa-vulu	thirty
Roviana	tolo-ŋa-vulu	thirty
Bugotu	ha-ŋa-vulu	ten
Nggela	ha-ŋa-vulu	ten
Ghari	sa-ŋa-vulu	ten
Longgu	ta-ŋa-vulu	ten
Lau	ta-ŋa-fulu	ten
Arosi	ta-ŋa-huru	ten
Proto-Micronesian	*-ŋawulu	unit of ten, in counting
Gilbertese	ŋa-un	ten; tens
Kosraean	lo-ŋo-ul	twenty
Woleaian	se-ŋa-ul sho	ten groups of copra
Utupua/Tanimbili	a-ŋa-ru	ten
Vanikoro	te-ŋa-ulu	ten
Buma	sa-ŋa-ulu	ten
Mota	sa-ŋa-vul	ten
Tur	sa-ŋa-ful	ten
Araki	sa-ŋa-vulu	ten
Central Maewo	sa-ŋa-vulu	ten
Raga	ha-ŋ-vulu	ten
Naman	sa-ŋa-vəl	ten
North Ambrym	sa-ŋ-ul	ten
Rotuman	sa-ŋ-hulu	ten
Fijian	sa-ŋa-vulu	ten
Tongan	ho-ŋo-fulu	ten
Nukuoro	mada-a-ŋa-hulu	ten
Rennellese	aŋa-hugu	ten
Maori	ŋa-huru	ten
Rapanui	a-ŋa-huru	ten

Note: For Palawano Revel-Macdonald (1979:178) gives forms of ‘one-LIG’ with nasal place assimilation before an initial obstruent, but with unambiguous velar nasal before sonorant consonants (sä-m-puluq ‘10’, sä-ŋ-gatus ‘100’, but sä-ŋ-ribu ‘1,000’, sä-ŋ-laksaq ‘1,000,000’. According to Kähler (1961), Simalur uses the ligature ŋa only when multiplying 6, 7 or 8 times a power of ten; when other numerals serve as the multiplier there is zero linkage. For Nias Sundermann (1905) gives fulu ‘10’ (in plural: ŋa-fulu). This somewhat obscure remark is clarified by dua ŋa otu ‘200’, where Nias ŋa is clearly the multiplicative ligature.

According to Stevens (1968), Madurese reflects *ŋa only in 7-9 x 10n (70, 80, 90, 700, 800, 900, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, etc.). Sneddon (1975:108) notes that in Tondano ‘10’, ‘100’, and ‘1,000’ all take the prefix ma- (ma-puluʔ, ma-atus, ma-riwu) but that higher multiples of ‘10’, ‘100’, and ‘1,000’ take the multiplicative ligature ŋa (rua ŋa-puluʔ, təlu ŋa-atus ‘300’, siow ŋa-riwu ‘900’, etc.). For Motu Lister-Turner and Clark (1954) give ahui ‘ten. Used in counting after the first ten, as rua ahui, twenty’. Motu regularly loses *ŋ (*haŋin > lai ‘wind’, *taŋis > tai ‘cry, howl’, etc.), as does Gabadi/Abadi. For further discussion of this grammatical morpheme see Blust (2012).

28810

*ŋabŋab bite off the surface of something

6040

PAN *ŋabŋab bite off the surface of something

Formosan
Amis	ŋafŋaf	eat grass, as a cow does
WMP
Ilokano	ŋabŋáb	to devour foods noisily (pigs)
Agta (Eastern)	ŋábŋab	crunching sound of chewing on something hard
Bontok	ŋabŋab	eat corn on the cob
Kankanaey	ŋabŋáb	bite from, take a bite from
Ifugaw	ŋabŋáb	bite off a mouthful out of something edible, e.g. a piece of meat, a cake
Ibaloy	ŋabŋab-an	to bite off the surface of something (as skin of guava, dog’s bite that takes a little skin, bulldozer skims only surface)
Tagalog	ŋabŋáb	bite off (meat from bones)
Minangkabau	ŋaŋap	snap at flies, of a dog

Note: Minangkabau ŋaŋap is assigned to a root *-ŋap ‘open, of the mouth’ in Blust (1988).

30804

*ŋadaq look upward

8552

PWMP *ŋadaq look upward [doublet: *tiŋadaq]

WMP
Malay	ŋadah	looking upwards
Chamorro	ŋahaʔ	look up, with head tilted back

30800

*ŋadas palate

8544

PMP *ŋadas palate

WMP
Ilokano	ŋádas	palate, roof of the mouth; the rice that cleaves to the upper half of the jar in which it is cooked; the concave side of a jar or pot
	ag-ŋádas	to have a sore palate; to be unable to pronounce (said of dying people)
Agta (Dupaningan)	ŋadas	gums
Agta (Eastern)	ŋadas	palate
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*ŋara	palate
Wolio	ŋara	palate
Muna	ŋara	palate
CMP
Buruese	ŋara-n	roof of the mouth; throat, larynx; the inside of the mouth and throat

8545

POC *ŋadasₐ gums

OC
Arosi	ŋada	the gums

Note: Also Pazeh ŋaras (< *ŋalaS), Hanunóo ŋárus ‘palate’. This term evidently coexisted with the more metaphorical *laŋit laŋit (< *laŋit ‘sky’). Ilokano ŋádas and Agta (Dupaningan), Agta (Eastern) ŋadas are ambiguous for *ŋa(dz)as, and Wolio ŋara is ambiguous for *ŋa(djz)as, but Muna ŋara disambiguates this form as *ŋadas, since *j produced /y/ (or *aj > e), and *z produced /s/. Despite its straightforward appearance, Arosi ŋada may be a convergent development, given the pervasive use of the phonestheme *ŋ- in Austronesian languages for words relating to the oral-nasal areas (Blust 2003a).

30393

*ŋajan name

7493

PAN *ŋajan name

Formosan
Basai	nanan	name
Kavalan	naŋan ^<M	name
	mnani-naŋan	person with the same name
	pa-si-naŋan	to name someone or something, give a name to
	si-naŋan	to be named
Sakizaya	ŋaŋan	name
Amis	ŋaŋan ^<A	name, title, designation; character, reputation
	mili-ŋaŋan	to take the name of someone else for oneself; to take land distributed for oneself
Bunun	ŋaan	name (given name)
Rukai	naganə	name
Paiwan	ŋadán	a name

7494

PMP *ŋajan name [doublet: *ajan]

WMP
Yami	ŋaran	name
Itbayaten	ŋaran	name
	mi-ñaran	to have the name of
Ilokano	nágan	name; term; appellation
	nagán-en	to name, mention by name, designate
Ibanag	ŋágan	name
Atta (Pamplona)	ŋágan	name
Itawis	náhan	name
Malaweg	ŋágan	name
Kalinga (Guinaang)	ŋálan	name
Arta	ŋadin	name
Bontok	ŋádan	name
Kankanaey	ŋádan	name; appelation, denomination, title
Ifugaw	ŋádan	proper name of a person, also the particular name of a village, a mountain, a forest, a group of rice terraces, and so forth
	ma-ŋádan	to be named
Ifugaw (Batad)	ŋādan	a name by which something or someone is identified (people, spirits, geographical divisions, flora and fauna); what?, when?, where?, who?
Yogad	ŋágan	name
Gaddang	ŋáan	name
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋahen	name
Umiray Dumaget	ŋalan	name
Ibaloy	ŋaran	name (as of person, town); also, what a thing is called
Pangasinan	ŋarán	name
Tagalog	ŋálan	name; reputation; denomination, a name, especially for a class of things
Remontado	ŋáran	name
Bikol	ŋáran	a name, title; noun
Buhid	ŋáyan	name
Hanunóo	ŋáran	name
Masbatenyo	ŋáran	name
Inati	ŋaran	name
Bantuqanon	ŋayan	name
Aklanon	ŋáean	name (one’s personal name); give a name to
	hi-ŋáean	to pronounce, say, name
Waray-Waray	ŋáran	name
Hiligaynon	ŋálan	name
Maranao	ŋaran	name
Binukid	ŋaran	name; to give a name to someone or something; to call someone by a specified name
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ŋazan	a name; to name something or use someone’s name
Mansaka	ŋaran	name
	paga-ŋaran-an	to call someone something
[Manobo (Kalamansig Cotabato)	ŋadan	name; what?]
Kalagan	ŋa:lan	name
Tausug	ŋān	a name (of something)
Kadazan Dusun	ŋaan	name; reputation
Tombonuwo	ŋaran	reputation
Minokok	ŋaran	name
Supan	ŋaran	name
Bisaya (Limbang)	ŋaran	name
Basap	ŋadan	name
Kelabit	ŋadan	name
	te-ŋadan	be given a name
	pe-te-ŋadan	name-calling
Berawan (Long Terawan)	(ŋ)aran	name
Dali'	adin	name
Sebop	ŋaran	name
Kenyah (Long Anap)	ŋadan	name
Kenyah (Long San)	ŋaran	name
Melanau (Balingian)	ŋaran	name
Melanau (Mukah)	ŋadan	name
Katingan	ŋaran	name
Paku	ŋaran	name
Ma'anyan	ŋaran	name
Malagasy	a- nárana	name, appellation, honor; rank, position
Mentawai	ŋagan	name
Sundanese	ŋaran	name; also, to name, call the name of
Old Javanese	ŋaran	name
	maka-ŋaran	with the name, called
Balinese	ŋadan	to name, give a name to
	ŋadan-in	to call by name; regard someone as being; accuse someone of
Tonsea	ŋaran	name
Tontemboan	ŋaran	name; position, function
	ŋ<um>aran	give a name to someone
	mapa-ŋaran	be given a name
Tonsawang	ŋalan	name
Totoli	ŋalan	name
Boano	laŋan ^<M	name
Balantak	naan	name
Bare'e	ŋaya	kind, type, sort
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*ŋeaN	name
Padoe	ŋee	name
Bungku	ŋee	name
Moronene	nee	name
Bonerate	ŋa	name
Muna	nea	name
Popalia	ŋa	name
Palauan	ŋakl	name
Chamorro	naʔan	name
CMP
Bimanese	ŋara	name
Komodo	ŋaraŋ	a name; to name
Manggarai	ŋasaŋ	a name; to name; named; kind, type
Ngadha	ŋaza	name; reputation; fame, renown
Ende	ŋara	name
Palu'e	ŋara	name
Lamaholot	narã	name
Kédang	naya	name
Kodi	ŋara	name
Lamboya	ŋara	name
Anakalangu	ŋara	name
Hawu	ŋara	name
Dhao/Ndao	ŋara	name
Helong	ŋala	name, kind; descent group
	ŋala	name
Atoni	kana-f	clan
Tetun	naran	name
	naran ida	whoever
	naran buat	anyone
Tetun (Dili)	naran	name
Galoli	naran	name
Erai	nean	name; named, be named
	na-nean	whose name is, named
Tugun	nean	name
Kisar	naran	name
Roma	naran-	name
West Damar	nono	name
Leti	nāna	name
Yamdena	ŋare	name; namesake
Kola	ŋahan	name
Ujir	ŋeen	name
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)	ŋarin	name
	ŋarin	name
Nuaulu	nana-	name
Kamarian	nala	name
Paulohi	nala	name
Laha	nalaŋ	name
Hitu	nala	name
Asilulu	nala-	name
Boano₂	nana	name
Tifu	ŋaa-n	name
Soboyo	ŋaañ	name
SHWNG
Buli	ŋasan	name; rank; occupation; function
Moor	nàtana	name
Ron	nasan	name
Numfor	nasan	title; office
Waropen	nasano	name

7495

POC *ŋacan name

OC
Lou	ŋara-n	his/her name
Lenkau	ŋaha-	name
Loniu	ŋaʔa-n	his/her name
Nali	ŋala-n	his/her name
Ere	ŋira-n	his/her name
Andra	laŋa-n ^<M	name
Leipon	ŋidre-n	his/her name
Ahus	laŋa-n ^<M	his/her name
	laŋa- ^<M	name
Lele	ŋala-n	his/her name
Ponam	laŋa- ^<M	name
Sori	aha-ŋ	his/her name
Bipi	kaxa-n	his/her name
Seimat	axa-n	his/her name
Wuvulu	axa-na	his/her name
Sio	ŋaa	name
Keapara	ara	name
Nehan	haŋan ^<M	name

7496

PWMP *i-ŋajan(-an) to name, give a name to; to call by name

WMP
Ilokano	i-nagan-an	to nominate, to name, call by name
Ibaloy	i-ŋadn-an	to call, mention someone’s name
Tagalog	i-ŋálan	to use a term as name for something
Bikol	i-ŋáran	to name someone after
Hanunóo	pag-i-ŋárn-an	to be named or called (something)
Old Javanese	i-ŋaran(-an)	give a name to, call, give or mention the name of someone; to regard, consider, believe to be

7497

PMP *i-pa-ŋajan to name, give a name to

WMP
Ilokano	ipa-nagan	to name; give a name to
Tagalog	ipa-ŋálan	to call, to name, to give a name
Old Javanese	pa-ŋaran	name, named, called
CMP
Yamdena	na-f-ŋare	give a name to
Note: Old Javanese pa-ŋaran and Yamdena na-f-ŋare may reflext *pa-ŋajan.

7498

PWMP *ka-ŋajan(-an) namesake (?)

WMP
Itbayaten	ka-ŋaran	namesake
Ilokano	ka-nagan(-an)	namesake; birthday
Bontok	ka-ŋád-ŋádn-an	to have the same name as another
Tagalog	ka-ŋálan	namesake
Kadazan Dusun	ka-ŋaan	can name; can be reputed
Old Javanese	ka-ŋaran-an	give a name to, call, give or mention the name of someone; to regard, consider, believe to be

7499

PWMP *paŋ-ŋaran name

WMP
Tagalog	paŋ-ŋálan	noun, substantive, the name of a person or thing
	wala-ŋ-paŋ-ŋálan	nameless, having no name
Bikol	paŋ-ŋáran	a name
Old Javanese	pa-ŋaran	name, named, called

7500

PAN *pu-ŋajan (gloss uncertain)

Formosan
Paiwan	pu-ŋadán	to have a name
WMP
Kadazan Dusun	pu-ŋaan-an	to name
Note: Possibly a product of convergence.

7501

PWMP *ŋajan-an to give a name to someone or something

WMP
Yami	ŋaran-an	give a name to, call by a name
Itbayaten	ŋaran-an	give a name to
Ifugaw	ŋadán-an	to give a name to somebody or something
Ifugaw (Batad)	ŋatn-an	for someone to name someone or something
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋahin-an	to name, give the name of something or someone
Ibaloy	ŋeshan-an	to give someone or a place a name
Tagalog	ŋalán-an	to name, give someone or something a name
Bikol	ŋáran-an	to name, christen; to call someone by name
Masbatenyo	ŋarán-an	be named
Tausug	ŋān-an	to name something
Kadazan Dusun	ŋaan-an	to be named
Sundanese	ŋa-ŋaran-an	give a name to someone or something

Note: Also Seediq (Truku) haŋan ‘name’, Thao lhanaz (< *ŋaRaj, with metathesis?), Puyuma ŋaɭad (< *ŋalaj?), Ida'an Begak naran, Kenyah (Long Selaaʻn) karan, Narum ñadin,Bintulu ñaran, Simalur kaxan, Mentawai gagan, Bare'e gara, Sika naraŋ, Rotinese nade(k) ‘name, to name, be named’, Atoni kana-k, Kemak galan ‘name’, Kei naram ‘fame, reputation, name’, Cheke Holo nahŋa ‘name’. Seediq (Truku) haŋan may reflect *ŋajan with metathesis, but this is unclear, since *-j- usually became s and occasionally disappeared, possibly through intermediate h (cf. Li 1981). I assume that the initial alveolar nasal in reflexes such as Rukai naganə, Ilokano nágan, Itawis náhan, and possibly Chamorro naʔan is a product of dissimilation between the onset of successive syllables at a time when *j [gʸ] still had a velar place feature.

32603

*ŋajay saliva, drivel

10991

PAN *ŋajay saliva, drivel

Formosan
Kavalan	ŋaŋay	saliva, drivel
	sa-ŋaŋay	to drivel, to drool
	tar-ŋaŋay	to keep drivelling
Paiwan	ŋadjay	saliva, drivel
	pe-ŋadjay	to salivate, slobber, drool
WMP
Yami (Imorod)	ŋahay	drivel, drool
Ivatan (Isamorong)	ŋahay	drivel, drool

Note: The Kavalan form is assumed to show reshaping from ŋanay, much as Amis ŋaŋan ‘name’ < *ŋajan shows reshaping from ŋanan.

33696

*ŋajes gums

12444

PPh *ŋajes gums

WMP
Yami	ŋares	gums
Itbayaten	ŋares	gums (of the teeth)
Ibatan	ŋares	gums (of the teeth)
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋahes	gums (inside the mouth)
Hanunóo	ŋárus	palate

28811

*ŋak raucous sound

6041

PMP *ŋak raucous sound [doublet: *ŋakŋak]

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋak	screech, shriek, scream
Karo Batak	ŋak	smack; make a smacking sound
Javanese	ŋak	honking of a goose
CMP
Manggarai	ŋak	row, disturbance, argument
OC
Rotuman	ŋā	squeal, squawk; neigh
Tongan	ŋā	(of a small child) to bawl, cry loudly

Note: Also Balinese ŋaak ‘honking of a goose’.

28812

*ŋakŋak raucous sound

6042

PMP *ŋakŋak raucous sound

WMP
Itbayaten	ŋakŋak	sound of eagles
Bontok	ma-ŋakŋák	to laugh loudly; the sound of loud laughter
Kankanaey	ŋakŋák	howl, yell, as dogs do
Ifugaw	ŋakŋák	howling of dogs
Aklanon	ŋákŋak	babble, sing or say meaningless syllables
Karo Batak	ŋakŋak	howl, set up a wail
Javanese	ŋakŋak	honking of geese

11924

PCEMP *ŋaŋak raucous sound

OC
Tongan	ŋāŋā	(of a small child) to bawl, cry loudly
Maori	ŋāŋā	make a hoarse, harsh noise, screech, as a bird

Note: Also Kankanaey ŋáŋak ‘cry, weep (used only in tales)’.

30789

*ŋali-ŋali move about in restless anger

8521

POC *ŋali-ŋali move about in restless anger

OC
Tolai	ŋa-ŋali	gesticulate, especially as a result of anger, to stamp the foot
Arosi	ŋari-ŋari-a	move about, annoy by change of position
	hau-ŋari-ŋari	angry
	ma-ŋari-ŋari	angry

30918

*ŋalŋal to chew, masticate

8764

PAN *ŋalŋal to chew, masticate

Formosan
Kavalan	ŋaŋŋar	move one’s mouth as one chews
Pazeh	ŋaraŋar	to bite little by little
WMP
Ilokano	ag-ŋalŋál	to chew
	ŋalŋal-en	to masticate, chew on
Agta (Dupaningan)	mag-ŋalŋal	to chew, gnaw
Bontok	ŋalŋal-ən	to chew meat
Ifugaw	ŋalŋál	mastication, but not applied to betel nut chewing
Ibaloy	ŋalŋal	to chew, perhaps especially to chew something for a long time
	ŋalŋal-en	to chew on something for a long time, with the jaws working hard and perhaps noisily (as dog chewing on bone)
Pangasinan	ŋalŋál	crush something hard or brittle with the teeth; chew

Note: Also Amis ŋaŋal ‘ulcerated mouth from betel’. Kavalan ŋaŋŋar is assumed to show sporadic assimilation of preconsonantal *l to the following nasal.

33529

*ŋalŋál cry out, bellow, moan

12261

PPh *ŋalŋál cry out, bellow, moan

WMP
Pangasinan	ŋalŋál	bellowing of a carabao or bull
Tagalog	ŋalŋál	prone to grumble and sob; wailing; loudly lamenting; weeping aloud
Aklanon	ŋáeŋae	to cry, whimper
Palawan Batak	ŋálŋal	pain
Proto-Minahasan	*ŋalŋal	to groan, moan (with pain)
Tombulu	ŋalŋal	to groan, moan (with pain)
Tontemboan	ŋaʔŋal	a moan, groan (in pain, difficulty, or when sleeping)

30096

*ŋalu wave, breaker (?)

6816

POC *ŋalu wave, breaker (?)

OC
Vitu	ŋalu	tide
Tongan	ŋalu	wave (when rolling in), breaker or surf
	ŋa-ŋalu	(of the sea) to show a track where a fish has just been swimming near the surface
Samoan	ŋalu	wave, breaker; (of the sea) be rough
	ŋa-ŋalu	(of the sea) be rippled, ruffled
Tuvaluan	ŋalu	a wave; rough (of sea); raised part of canoe foredeck designed to prevent entry of waves
Kapingamarangi	ŋolu ^<A	large wave
Rennellese	ŋagu	wave; to form waves
Anuta	ŋaru	breakers, surf (rarely: wave)
Rarotongan	ŋaru	wave, ocean swell
Maori	ŋaru	wave of the sea; corrugation
	ŋaru-ŋaru	rough with waves
Hawaiian	nalu	wave, surf; full of waves; to form waves; wavy, as wood grain
	nalu-nalu	rough, of a sea with high waves

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance. POc *napok clearly meant ‘surf, breakers’, and *Ruap meant either ‘high tide’ or ‘tide’ in general, leaving the gloss of this form unclear.

30805

*ŋani indeed; interjection expressing validity to an interlocutor

8553

PPh *ŋani indeed; interjection expressing validity to an interlocutor

WMP
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋani	indeed, precisely, really, truly, actually (used as an interjection expressing the certainty or truthfulness of a statement)
Hanunóo	ŋáni	indeed (asserting validity, as in ‘This is alright, isn’t it? Yes, indeed!’)
Agutaynen	ŋani	indeed; really; very
	maŋ-ŋani	to definitely, really do something

Note: Also Aklanon ŋániʔ ‘particle used as an interjection, expressing the certainty or truthfulness of a statement; sometimes it can imply annoyance; indeed, precisely, I know’, Manobo (Western Bukidnon) ŋaniʔ ‘emphatic particle’. These forms with final glottal stop suggest either that reflexes of *ŋani ‘indeed’ have been contaminated by reflexes of *ŋaniq ‘even’, or that the two comparisons are identical, and that the semantic distinction recognized here is better treated as part of a wider range of meanings than either of these glosses imply.

30806

*ŋaniq even

8554

PPh *ŋaniq even

WMP
Itbayaten	ŋani	even
Ilokano	ŋan-ŋani	nearly, almost, a little short
Bontok	ŋani	nearly, almost
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋani	indeed, precisely, really, actually
Cebuano	ŋániʔ	even (as in ‘I don’t even have a peso’)
Binukid	ŋániʔ	used to express an extreme case or an unlikely instance; even, at least
Manobo (Agusan)	ŋani	even

Note: Also Agutaynen ŋani indeed; really; definitely; very, Cebuano gániʔ ‘even’, Binukid gániʔ ‘used to express an extreme case or an unlikely instance; even, at least’.

28819

*ŋaŋ inarticulate sound

6050

PMP *ŋaŋ inarticulate sound [doublet: *ŋa(ŋ)ŋaŋ]

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋaŋ	to gnarl, snarl, growl
Javanese	ŋaŋ	whine of an engine
OC
Tolai	ŋa	gasp, breathe with difficulty
Niue	ihu-ŋā	one who speaks through the nose
Maori	ŋā	breathe, take breath
Hawaiian	nā	moan, groan, wail

30367

*ŋaŋa₁ bitter, poisonous

7406

POC *ŋaŋa₁ bitter, poisonous

OC
Gilbertese	ŋaŋa	food poisoning (esp. by fish); suffer from poisoning
	ka-ŋaŋa	to poison
Wayan	ŋaŋa	be poisonous, toxic; bitter or sour in taste, astringent; pungent, hot in taste; poison, toxic quality; bitterness
Fijian	ŋaŋa	bitter, sour, poisonous

30589

*ŋaŋa₂ open the mouth

7984

PAN *ŋaŋa₂ open the mouth

Formosan
Basai	lo-ŋaŋa	open the mouth

7985

PMP *ŋaŋa₂ open the mouth wide, gape; gaping; opening of a bubu fish trap, basket, etc.

WMP
Ilokano	a-ŋáŋa	to open the mouth wide
	naka-ŋáŋa	agape, unshut
	napa-ŋáŋa	amazed, astonished, perplexed
Bontok	ŋaŋá	to be astounded; to be surprised; to be open-mouthed with surprise
Ifugaw	ŋaŋá	big fissure in a piece of wood, e.g. in a board, a beam
Isinay	ŋaŋá	open-mouthed, gaping
	maŋ-ŋaŋá	to open one’s mouth
Pangasinan	ŋáŋa	open mouth
Tagalog	(pag)-ŋaŋá	act of opening the mouth
	i-ŋaŋá	to open one’s mouth
	naka-ŋaŋá	open-mouthed; agape, gaping with mouth wide open in wonder or surprise
Bikol	ŋáŋa	open (the mouth)
	i-ŋáŋa	to open the mouth in order to show something inside
	mag-ŋáŋa	to open the mouth, to gape
	mapa-ŋáŋa	to gape in bewilderment
Hanunóo	ŋáŋa	open-mouthed
	mag-ŋáŋa	keep one’s mouth open
	pa-ŋaŋah-ín	to get someone to open his mouth
Romblomanon	naga-ŋaŋá	the mouth of a mollusk opens
Masbatenyo	i-ŋaŋá	be opened (as the mouth)
	mag-ŋaŋá	to open the mouth
Aklanon	ŋáŋa(h)	to open up (as the mouth)
Cebuano	ŋáŋa ~ ŋaŋá	open the mouth; be unable to speak, usually for not knowing what to say; for things that have edges to gape (as a wound, overfull suitcase)
Mansaka	ŋaŋa	open (as mouth); to open (as one’s mouth)
Tboli	ŋaŋa	to open one’s mouth wide
Kelabit	ŋaŋəh	mouth of a bubuh (bamboo basket trap for fish)
[Melanau Dalat	ŋaŋa	mouth of a bubəw (bamboo basket trap for fish)]
Melanau (Matu)	ŋaŋa	bucktoothed, sticking out, of the teeth
Malagasy	nana-nana	a cry, a scream, a shout
Malay	ter-ŋaŋa	agape
	ŋaŋa-kan mulut	to open the mouth wide
	me-ŋaŋa-ŋaŋa-kan paroh	to keep opening and shutting its beak (of a bird)
Karo Batak	ŋaŋa	wide open, gaping, of a hole or the mouth
Nias	mo-ŋaŋa	to chew betel
Sasak	ŋaŋaʔ	open the mouth, gape (in astonishment)
Sangir	bu-ŋaŋa	to howl (of a child)
	ŋ<um>aŋaŋa	to gape, keep the mouth open
Tontemboan	ŋaŋa	open, opened, of the mouth; gaping, of living things, of a sack, a basket, etc.
	i-ŋaŋa	open (your mouth)
	ma-ŋaŋa	to open the mouth (< *maŋ-ŋaŋa)
	maka-ŋaŋa	stay wide open, as the mouth
	ŋ<um>aŋa	to open the mouth; open the mouth of a sack
Mongondow	ŋaŋa	opening or entrance of an elongated object, as a bamboo internode used in cooking, or a long passage; can also be used for opening of the mouth or the entrance to the gullet
Uma	ŋaŋa	mouth
Bare'e	ŋaŋa	mouth cavity; voice
	me-ŋaŋa	gape, open the mouth wide
Tae'	me-ŋaŋa	opened, spread apart, of the mouth of an opening
	me-ŋaŋa buŋga	open-mouthed in wonder or surprise
Koroni	ŋaŋa	mouth
Wawonii	ŋaŋa	mouth
Makassarese	aʔ-ŋaŋa	wide open; have the mouth wide open; open the mouth, gape
CMP
Manggarai	ŋaŋa	agape; opened wide (as a gaping wound)
Rembong	ŋaŋa	mouth; chatter
	ata ŋaŋa	person who talks a lot
	ŋaŋa-n waeʔ	mouth of a river, estuary
Ngadha	ŋaŋa	opening; open the mouth; open the rim of a container wide in order to insert things
	ŋaŋa bhoa	open the mouth wide; call loud and long (with open mouth)
Kambera	ŋaŋa	opening of the mouth; also: mouth
	ŋaru ŋaŋa	wide open mouth
Tetun	(ha)-nana	to open
OC
Tolai	pa-ŋaŋa	to open one’s mouth, open; yawn; gape
Gitua	ŋaŋa	carry off in the mouth (as a dog taking food away)

Note: Also Truku Seediq ŋaŋax ‘idiot’, Tboli naŋa ‘to open one’s mouth wide’, Ngadha naŋa ‘to gape; to howl, cry (vulgar)’. Cebuano ŋaŋhá ‘be openmouthed with sudden surprise’ points to PMP *ŋahŋah, PAn *ŋaSŋaS but this inference is counterindicated by Basai lo-ŋaŋa. The form *ŋaŋa is clearly iconic, since a velar nasal followed by a low vowel is difficult to produce without holding the mouth wide open. The additional syllable in Sangir ŋaŋaŋa may be intended to add emphasis to the durative feature of gaping, an act which is normally involuntary, and of which the actor is unconscious (as shown by the involuntary action prefix ter- in Malay ter-ŋaŋa).

28821

*ŋa(ŋ)ŋaŋ inarticulate sound

6052

PMP *ŋa(ŋ)ŋaŋ inarticulate sound

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋaŋáŋ	pronouncing inarticulate sounds, as mute persons
Karo Batak	ŋaŋŋaŋ	snarl; have a "big mouth", quarrel
Javanese	ŋaŋŋaŋ	whine of an engine

11925

PCEMP *ŋaŋaŋ inarticulate sound

CMP
Manggarai	ŋiŋi-ŋaŋaŋ	stutter, become confused, be unable to reply
OC
Tolai	ŋaŋā	breathe heavily, draw a long and deep breath; heave the chest in breathing
Maori	ŋaŋā	breathe heavily or with difficulty
Hawaiian	nanā	snarling

Note: The length of the last syllable vowel in the Tolai, Maori, and Hawaiian reflexes of *ŋa(ŋ)ŋaŋ is unexplained.

30520

*ŋapa₁ fathom

7762

POC *ŋapa₁ fathom

OC
Loniu	ŋah	fathom
	ha-ŋah	one fathom
	maʔu-ŋeh	two fathoms
Nali	ŋah	fathom
	ha-ŋah	one fathom
Tanga	na:f	fathom, length
Roviana	ŋava	fathom
Eddystone/Mandegusu	ŋava	a measure of distance, fathom
	ŋava- ŋava	a long distance
Bugotu	ha-ŋava	a fathom
Sa'a	ta-haŋa ^<M	a fathom
Gilbertese	ŋaa	fathom (Bender et al 2003)
Pohnpeian	ŋaap	fathom, the distance between outstretched arms, approximately six feet
Mokilese	ŋaap	fathom; to measure with outstretched arms
Chuukese	ŋaaf	fathom (distance from fingertip to fingertip of outstretched hands and arms)
Puluwat	ŋaaf	fathom
	ye-ŋaf	one fathom
Woleaian	ŋaf(a)	fathom, the distance from one fingertip to another when the arms are outstretched
Tongan	ŋafa	length or section of tapa cloth
	ʔeku ŋafa	fathom, six feet; but ofa is more usual in this sense
Samoan	ŋafa	fathom
	ta-ŋafa	to measure in fathoms
Tuvaluan	ŋafa	a fathom; distance encompassed by outstretched arms
Rennellese	ŋa-ŋaha	to measure distance in approximate fathoms (distance between fingertips, arms extended)

33796

*ŋapa₂ long

12584

POC *ŋapa₂ long

OC
Babatana	ŋava	long
Raga	ŋafa	long

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

33808

*ŋapa₃ lime gourd (for betel chew)

12601

POC *ŋapa₃ lime gourd (for betel chew)

OC
Loniu	ŋah	lime
Leipon	ŋah	lime
Bipi	ŋah	lime
Emira	ŋapa	betel nut lime pot (Chinnery 1927)

Note: Also Mussau ŋaapa ‘lime gourd’.

32570

*ŋaqŋaq₁ open the mouth, gape

10935

PWMP *ŋaqŋaq₁ open the mouth, gape

WMP
Lun Dayeh	ŋaŋaʔ	wide open
	te-ŋaŋaʔ	to open wide (as the mouth, so that all the teeth can be seen)
Chamorro	ŋaʔŋaʔ	open-mouthed while staring blankly; look up with mouth open; gape

33562

*ŋaqŋaq₂ to chew betel

12298

PPh *ŋaqŋaq₂ to chew betel

WMP
Ayta Abellan	ŋaʔŋa	to chew
Tagalog	ŋáŋaʔ	prepared buyo or betel nut ready for chewing
Proto-Minahasan	*ŋaʔŋaʔ	to chew
Tonsawang	ŋaʔŋa	to chew betel nut

Note: This comparison was first noted schematically by Zorc (1986:164).

30417

*ŋara complain loudly

7551

POC *ŋara complain loudly

OC
Tolai	ŋa-ŋara	to cry, scream, squeal, as a pig (applied to a person who laughs)
Halia	ŋala	to cry
Bugotu	ŋara	to rail, shout at, threaten
Lau	ŋara	to creak, of trees rubbing together
Arosi	ŋara	to cry
	ŋara-si	to cry for
	ŋara-ŋara	to cry

33743

*ŋarab blade, cutting edge of knife, etc.

12499

PPh *ŋarab blade, cutting edge of knife, etc.

WMP
Itbayaten	ŋarab	blade, cutting edge
Isneg	ŋárab	the edge of a cutting instrument
Ifugaw	ŋaláb	the sharp and whetted side of the blade of a knife
Ifugaw (Batad)	ŋālab	the thin edge of the blade of an axe, bolo, or knife
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋahab	sharp edge (of the sharp edge of a mountain, or the sharpened edge of a bolo or arrowhead)

33797

*ŋaraŋara to swim

12585

POC *ŋaraŋara to swim

OC
Wogeo	ŋaraŋar	to swim
Manam	ŋara	to swim
Nasarian	i- ŋarŋar	to swim

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

28816

*ŋarŋar fragment, split-off piece

6047

PMP *ŋarŋar fragment, split-off piece

WMP
Toba Batak	ŋarŋar	fragment, shard

11926

PCEMP *ŋaŋar fragment, piece of something

CMP
Manggarai	ŋaŋar	crack, split; in pieces, cracked (of soil, earthenware pot, wood)

28815

*ŋaRaq wild duck

6045

PMP *ŋaRaq wild duck

WMP
Ibaloy	ŋala	kind of wild duck
Bikol	nagáʔ	wild duck
Sasak	ŋaraʔ	wild duck
Chamorro	ŋaŋaʔ	duck (fowl)
CMP
Bimanese	ŋara	kind of small duck that lays numerous eggs
Manggarai	ŋara	wild duck
OC
Kuruti	ŋay	ducklike wildfowl with webbed feet
Wedau	nara	duck, shag
Roviana	ŋara	the wild duck
Arosi	ŋara i suʔu	a duck (suʔu = swamp)
Proto-Micronesian	*ŋaa-ŋaa	sea bird, duck
Fijian	ŋā	the grey duck

Note: Also Sasak ŋaʔ ‘wild duck’, Lau ŋā ‘a duck’. The precise referent of PCEMP *ŋaRa is unclear, though it appears likely that it is the same as PWMP *bariwis (viz. ‘wild duck: Dendrocygna sp.’). Given the zoographical facts (Peterson 1931-1951) a PMP term for Dendrocygna sp. almost certainly existed, but no etymon has yet been inferred. For this reason it is impossible to determine whether one of these terms (*bariwis or *ŋaRa) existed in PMP and was replaced by the other, whether both existed with somewhat different referents, or whether some third term designated Dendrocygna sp. and was replaced both in PWMP and in PCEMP by the terms we reconstruct. The sequence ŋag-, which arose after the change *R > g in languages such as Bikol and Chamorro, evidently presented problems of segmental compatibility, and was modified by dissimilation of ŋ in Bikol and assimilation of g in Chamorro, a pattern of sporadic change that is also seen with reflexes of *ŋajan ‘name’ in some languages.

28817

*ŋasŋas crush with the teeth

6048

PMP *ŋasŋas crush with the teeth

WMP
Agta (Eastern)	ŋasŋas	chew through (as for a dog to chew through his leash and get away)
Kankanaey	ŋasŋás	to crunch, craunch; sound produced by chewing half-cooked camotes, etc.
Cebuano	ŋasŋas	damage by scraping
Karo Batak	ŋasŋas	of goats, nibble all over the bushes
Nias	mo-ŋaŋa	to chew; chew betel
Chamorro	ŋaŋas	chew
	ŋaŋas	chew, masticate, grind with the teeth

11927

PCEMP *ŋaŋas chew something tough, as sugarcane

OC
Label	ŋas	chew
Nggela	ŋas-i	suck, as sugarcane; bite; husk with the teeth, of coconuts
'Āre'āre	nas-i	chew, gnaw
Sa'a	ŋäs-i	to chew
Ulawa	ŋaŋas-i	to chew, to roll about in the mouth
Arosi	ŋaŋa	to eat
	ŋas-i	to chew, as sugarcane
Southeast Ambrym	ŋas	to chew, bite, sting
	ŋasi-en	chewing, biting, stinging

Note: Originally proposed in Blust (1977a:8), where only one non-Oceanic witness (Chamorro) was cited.

32945

*ŋata hole, hollow

11414

POC *ŋata hole, hollow

OC
Nali	ŋara(a)	hole
Woleaian	ŋat(a)	hole, hollow, concavity

30919

*ŋatŋat to chew off

8765

PWMP *ŋatŋat to chew off

WMP
Ilokano	ŋatŋát	to gnaw, tear with the teeth
Agta (Eastern)	ŋátŋat	chew food, betel nut, gum, etc.
Isneg	ŋaŋát	to masticate, to chew
Itawis	ŋáŋat	chewing tobacco
	maŋ-ŋáŋat	to chew
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋátŋat	to chew through (as for a dog to chew through his leash and get away)
Tagalog	ŋ<um>atŋát	to gnaw; to bite and wear away
Karo Batak	ŋatŋat	to chew, bite
	ŋatŋat-i	chew on something
Toba Batak	mar-ŋatŋat-i	to gnaw off, gnaw on something that isn’t yet ripe
Nias	mo-ŋaŋa	to chew, as betel

Note: Also Ilokano ŋatíŋat ‘to chew the cud; to chew betel’.

32591

*ŋatu above, on top

10971

PPh *ŋatu above, on top

WMP
Yami	ŋato	upgrade, on top, above
	ma-ŋato	upper
	tey-ŋato	above, on top
Ilokano	ŋáto	height; upstairs
	ag-pa-ŋáto	to ascend; climb up; go up
	na-ŋáto	high (in position, location, social standing)
	pa-ŋatú-en	to raise, increase
	ŋ<um>áto	to rise; attain a better position; go up
Isneg	ŋáto	height
	ka ŋáto	above
Bontok	ŋátu	above, up
Ibaloy	on-ŋato	to go high --- esp. of a person’s station in life, and prices (said to be from Ilokano)
	pe-ŋato	to raise, cause something to go up, go higher

10972

PPh *i-ŋatu (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Yami	i-ŋato	on top
Ilokano	i-ŋáto	to raise, lift, promote; advance
Isneg	i-ŋáto	a spirit

30089

*ŋau₁ to chew, chew off

6807

POC *ŋau₁ to chew, chew off

OC
Gitua	ŋau	pre-masticate food for an infant
Sa'a	ŋäu	to eat
	ŋäu-he	a feast; food
Arosi	ŋau	to eat food
	ŋau-ŋau-raa	gluttonous; a glutton
Gilbertese	ŋau	gluttony, voracity; gluttonous
Mota	ŋau	gnaw, champ, bite
Tongan	ŋau	gnaw, chew, as sugarcane, in order to appropriate the juice only
Niue	ŋau	to chew, as sugarcane
Samoan	ŋau	to chew, as sugarcane
Tuvaluan	ŋau	chew (but not swallow, as of sugarcane)
Kapingamarangi	ŋau	to chew
Nukuoro	ŋau	chew (to suck juice out)
Rennellese	ŋau	to chew, as pandanus, sugarcane, betel husks; to bite
Anuta	ŋau	to chew
Maori	ŋau	bite, gnaw
Hawaiian	nau	chew, munch, masticate; gnash the teeth; grinder, as of a sugar mill

6808

POC *ŋau-ŋau to chew

OC
Sa'a	ŋäu-ŋeu	to eat
Arosi	ŋau-ŋau	to eat; a meal
Gilbertese	ŋau-ŋau	very gluttonous; to gulp down, cram, devour
Niue	ŋau-ŋau	to bite

31135

*ŋau₂ to hit, strike

9119

POC *ŋau₃ to hit, strike

OC
Tolai	ŋau	strike with a stick in the ŋauŋau ceremony
Arosi	ŋau	to beat, strike

Note: Possibly a convergent innovation.

30825

*ŋawŋaw sound produced by an animal; unintelligible muttering of a person

8594

PAN *ŋawŋaw sound produced by an animal; unintelligible muttering of a person

Formosan
Pazeh	ŋawŋaw	sound of a bird, insect; voice
	mu-ŋawŋaw	to chirp (as a bird, insect)
WMP
Itbayaten	ŋawŋaw	cat sound
	mi-ñawŋaw	to mew
Ilokano	ŋawŋaw	mouth (of a river), gorge; entrance to throat
	ag-ŋawŋaw	to meow (said of the cat), speak softly, under one’s breath; gossip
Ibaloy	on-ŋawŋaw	to mew---the sound of a cat
Tausug	ŋawŋaw	a muttering, mumbling, grumbling; low unintelligible sound in the throat
	mag-ŋawŋaw	to utter such a sound, mumble, mutter, grumble

29871

*ŋayaw headhunting

6526

PAN *ŋayaw headhunting

Formosan
Puyuma	ŋayaw	headhunting
	ka-ŋayaw-an	headhunting festival (Cauquelin 2011)
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	ma a ŋayaw	(of many people) to go headhunting (Tsuchida 1982)

6527

PMP *kayaw headhunting

WMP
Isneg	káyaw	headhunting
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋayɔ	raider; a killing raid; to attack a house or village for the purpose of killing
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	kayew	be in readiness to fight
Kenyah	kayaw	a warrior
Kayan	kayaw	war; headhunting raid; pagan ceremony simulating battle with spirits, performed in old customs by dayuŋ (shaman)
Kayan (Uma Juman)	kayo	post-harvest ceremony for the ritual purification of weapons
Ngaju Dayak	kayaw	headhunter
Iban	kayaw	raiding, war, foray because of a feud, headhunting
Maloh	kayo	to hunt heads
Karo Batak	ŋ-kayo-i	attack someone, plunder a conquered village
Boano	kayo	headhunting

6528

PMP *ma-ŋayaw go headhunting

WMP
Isneg	maŋáyaw	go headhunting
Ifugaw	ŋáyo, ŋáyaw	headhunting raid, revenge expedition
Ifugaw (Batad)	ŋāyaw	for a group of men … to go on a headhunting raid (a raiding party traditionally consisted of about five to ten men, usually from a single clan)
	ŋ-um-āyaw	waylay an enemy … for the purpose of taking a head in revenge
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	meŋayaw	a raider
Tboli	ŋayaw	(of people) to raid at night, to kill and take things
Kenyah	ŋayaw	go headhunting
Kayan	ŋayo	go headhunting
Ngaju Dayak	ma-ŋañaw	go headhunting
Iban	ŋayaw	make war on
Boano	maŋayo	go headhunting

6529

PWMP *pa-ŋayaw headhunting expedition

WMP
Maranao	paŋayaw	engage in piracy
	paŋayaw-an	place where slaves are captured
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	peŋayaw	raid a house or village in order to kill someone
Tiruray	feŋayaw	invade, attack another tribe or country
Dampelas	paŋayaw	headhunting

Note: Also Tboli nayaw ‘(of people) to raid at night, to kill and take things’, Kayan ayaw ‘an enemy in war’. It is unclear whether a separate base *ŋayaw is also justified for PMP. This form is reconstructed for PAn, since the only Formosan language that has a related form is Puyuma , in which the base is ŋayaw. Cognates such as Ifugaw ŋáyo, ŋáyaw and Tboli ŋayaw may be affixed forms of káyaw, or reflexes of a doublet that began with a velar nasal.

30976

*ŋazel dull, blunt

8874

PWMP *ŋazel dull, blunt

WMP
Yami (Imorod)	ŋaleh	dull
Itbayaten	ŋarex	dull
Ibatan	om-ŋare-ŋareh	to blunt or dull a blade
Bisaya (Limbang)	ŋalol	dull, blunt
Lun Dayeh	ŋadə	blunt
Kelabit	ŋadəl	dull, blunt
Kenyah	ŋajən	blunt
Kenyah (Long Anap)	ŋajən	dull, of a blade (not of a point)
Kenyah (Long Dunin)	ŋasən	blunt
Murik	ŋajən	dull, blunt

8875

PWMP *ma-ŋazel dull, blunt

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-ŋarex	dull (of knife), to be dull
Ibatan	ma-ŋareh	the cutting side of a blade is blunt, dull
Lun Dayeh	mə-ŋadəl	blunt
Bintulu	mə-ŋajən	dull, blunt

Note: Also Ilokano ŋudél ‘dullness’, ma-ŋudél ‘dull, blunt’, Atta (Pamplona) na-ŋural ‘dull (as a knife)’, Agta (Dupaningan) ma-ŋudal ‘dull’, Casiguran Dumagat ŋudél ‘dull (of a knife, bolo, razor blade, axe’, Mansaka ŋaŋul ‘to be dull (as a blade)’, Sa'ban padəl, Kenyah (Long Wat), Penan (Long Lamai) kajən ‘dull, blunt’, Kayan (Uma Juman) kasəl ‘dull, blunt’, Melanau Dalat ñəl ‘dull, blunt’, Melanau (Matu) tajəl ‘dull, blunt’.

TOP ŋa ŋe ŋi ŋo ŋu

ŋe

30639

*ŋeCŋeC gnash the teeth

8147

PAN *ŋeCŋeC gnash the teeth

Formosan
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)	ŋeTŋeT-i	to bite severely
WMP
Itbayaten	ŋetŋet	idea of mastication
	ŋetŋet-en	to gnaw, to chew, to nibble
Agta (Dupaningan)	mag-ŋatŋat	to chew, gnaw
Itawis	ŋáŋat	chewing tobacco
Bontok	ŋətŋət	to rip with the teeth, as tough meat; to chew on, as rats on sugarcane
Kankanaey	men-ŋetŋét	to grind, to grate, to gnash
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋétŋet	to chew (of the chewing of food, betel nut, or chewing gum)
Tagalog	ŋitŋít	rage; fury; suppressed rage or fury; intensity
Melanau (Mukah)	ŋəŋət	chewed up
	ŋuŋət	to gnaw, chew on
	ŋiŋət	was gnawed, chewed on
Malay	ŋeŋat	moth
Karo Batak	ŋetŋet	clothes moth; harbor a grudge

8148

POC *ŋoŋot-i to gnaw, nibble

OC
Nggela	ŋot-i	gnaw, nibble (Blust 1977a:6)

Note: Also Kankanaey men-ŋét ‘to grate; to creak; to gnash’.

28823

*ŋek₁ grunt

6054

PMP *ŋek grunt [doublet: *ŋekŋek 'mumble, etc.']

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋek	to grunt, as a hog when hungry
CMP
Manggarai	ŋuru-ŋek	disturbance, commotion (of piglets)

11928

POC *ŋok grunt

OC
Niue	ŋō	noise, tumult; make a noise, to clamor
Maori	ŋō	cry, grunt, make any articulate sound

Note: Also Kankanaey ŋéek ‘to snore’.

33810

*ŋek₂ to squeal, cry out, as a pig

12602

POC *ŋek₂ to squeal, cry out, as a pig

OC
Tolai	ŋek	to squeal, as a pig
Lau	ŋē	to cry, utter, voice
Toqabaqita	ŋee	used to call pigs for feeding

Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.

28824

*ŋekŋek mumble, etc.

6055

PMP *ŋekŋek mumble, etc.

WMP
Bontok	ŋəkŋək	indicate one's disapproval of what is being said by acting as though one doesn't hear, or by mumbling one's objections
Kankanaey	ŋekŋék	to resound, clatter, rattle, bang, as when many people cleave wood

11929

POC *ŋoŋok breath loudly, snore

OC
Tolai	ŋoŋo	breathe; difficulty in breathing
Hawaiian	nonō (length unexplained)	to snore, gurgle

Note: Also Makassarese ŋeŋe ‘whimper, whine’.

28825

*ŋeni beg, ask for

6056

PMP *ŋeni beg, ask for

WMP
Maranao	ŋeni	beg, ask for (as money)
Lampung	ŋeni	to give (Krui dialect)

11930

POC *ŋoni beg, ask for

OC
Arosi	ŋoni	ask for, beg

Note: Milke (1968) reconstructed POc *noŋi ‘beg’. It is unclear whether Arosi ŋoni is an isolated retention of a POc variant, or a product of secondary metathesis which restored the original order of consonants.

28828

*ŋeŋ buzz, hum

6059

PMP *ŋeŋ buzz, hum [doublet: *ŋe(ŋ)ŋeŋ]

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋeŋ	hum noisily
Javanese	ŋeŋ	hum, buzz (of gnats, midges, etc.)
CMP
Manggarai	ŋeŋ	hum
Yamdena	n-ŋeŋ	hiss, of a snake

30418

*ŋeŋe to shout, to argue with

7552

POC *ŋeŋe to shout, to argue with

OC
Tolai	ŋeŋe	to shout
Kwaio	ŋeŋe	strongly, argumentatively
	fata ŋeŋe	speak strongly, argumentative
	ŋeŋe-ʔa	to growl, of a dog or stomach
Lau	ŋeŋe	to dispute, contradict, disobey, argue with; to creak by rubbing against

Note: Also Tongan ŋā, ŋē, ŋēŋē ‘to pant, to struggle for breath, as a person with asthma does; (of a small child) to bawl, cry loudly’. Possibly a chance resemblance.

28829

*ŋeŋeŋ buzz, hum

6060

PMP *ŋeŋeŋ buzz, hum

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋeŋéŋ	talk through the nose
Ibaloy	man-ŋeŋŋeŋ	to speak words that are not distinguishable (as crowd of people all talking, new song being sung, deaf mute talking)
Javanese	ŋeŋŋeŋ	hum, buzz (of gnats, midges, etc.)

11931

POC *ŋoŋoŋ hoot, as an owl

OC
Lau	ŋoŋō (length unexplained)	to hoot, of an owl

33758

*ŋepŋep to gasp, have difficulty breathing

12519

PMP *ŋepŋep to gasp, have difficulty breathing

WMP
Malay	ŋəŋap	panting, gasping for breath

12520

POC *ŋoŋop panting, gasping for breath

OC
Tolai	ŋoŋo	to have difficulty in breathing

30801

*ŋerŋer growl

8546

PAN *ŋerŋer growl

Formosan
Puyuma	ŋerŋer	growl of a dog
	ma-ŋerŋer	to growl, of a dog
WMP
Ilokano	ŋerŋér	growling sound; sound of sawing
	ag-ŋerŋér	to growl, snarl (dogs)
	ŋerŋer-an	to growl at
Maranao	ŋeŋer	growl, howl, grunt
Lun Dayeh	ŋeŋer	growl, snarl (dog)

Note: Lun Dayeh ŋeŋer is said to derive from a base eŋer, with active verb-forming prefix ŋ-. Given the comparative data cited here I assume that eŋer is a back-formation from a base with initial velar nasal.

30807

*ŋesŋes to pant, be out of breath

8555

PAN *ŋesŋes to pant, be out of breath

Formosan
Puyuma	ŋəsŋəs	breathless; to pant
	ma-ŋəsŋəs	be short of breath
WMP
Ilokano	ŋesŋés	to have difficulty when breathing through the nose (as a person with sinusitis)
	ŋesŋes-en	breathe with difficulty
Bontok	ŋəsŋə́s	to stop in order to get one’s breath; to get relief from panting

Note: Also Paiwan ŋasŋas ‘to pant’ (< *ŋaSŋaS), Melanau (Mukah) ŋus ‘to exhale’, Rejang ŋas ‘to breathe heavily; out of breath’.

30808

*ŋetŋet gnaw, nibble

8556

PAN *ŋetŋet gnaw, nibble

Formosan
Puyuma	ŋətŋət	gnash one’s teeth; bite without letting go
	mə-ŋətŋət	to nibble
WMP
Itbayaten	ŋetŋet	idea of mastication
	m<iñ>ñ<ar>etŋet	to gnash one’s teeth (as after tasting a very sour orange, or in sleep, of some persons dreaming)
	ŋetŋet-en	to gnaw, to chew, to nibble
Ilokano	ŋetŋét	to tear with the teeth
	ŋetŋet-en	to tear with the teeth; tear off
	ŋetŋet-én	to tear with the teeth
Bontok	ŋətŋət	to rip with the teeth, as tough meat; to chew on, as rats on sugarcane
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋətŋət	to chew (of the chewing of food, betel nut, or chewing gum)
Melanau (Mukah)	ŋeŋet	chewed up
	ŋuŋet	to gnaw, chew on
Malay	ŋeŋat	moth
	di-makan ŋeŋat	moth-eaten
Karo Batak	ŋetŋet	clothes moth

8593

POC *ŋoti to gnaw, nibble

OC
Nggela	ŋoti	to gnaw, nibble

28831

*ŋiak cry loudly

6062

PWMP *ŋiak cry loudly [doublet: *kiqak 'to squawk']

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋíak	cry, weep loudly
Toba Batak	ŋiak	grunt, squeal
Minangkabau	ŋéak	whine or cry complainingly -- of a very young child
Javanese	ŋèk	a baby's crying

Note: Also Javanese ŋiyék ‘to scream (of an animal)’, ŋéyok ‘to scream (in terror, of a victorious cock, etc.)’.

28832

*ŋiaŋ whine

6063

PWMP *ŋiaŋ whine

WMP
Malay	ŋiaŋ	(onom.) whine complainingly
Minangkabau	si-ŋiaŋ-ŋiaŋ	whining ghosts of unwanted children, taking the form of frogs
Mongondow	ŋia(ŋ)-ŋiaŋ	kind of cricket

Note: Also Manggarai ŋiéŋ ‘shrill sound, cry of a cat’.

33182

*ŋiaw meow of a cat

11681

PWMP *ŋiaw meow of a cat

WMP
Ilokano	ŋiáw	meow of a cat
	ag-ŋiáw	to meow (said of the cat)
Mongondow	ŋiaw	the sound of a cat

Note: Also Ilokano ŋíraw ‘to meow (said of cats)’, Mongondow ŋeow ‘the sound of a cat’. Probably a convergent innovation, since domestic cats must have been introduced after the Austronesian settlment of island Southeast Asia.

30826

*ŋiCŋiC show annoyance or irritation

8595

PAN *ŋiCŋiC show annoyance or irritation

Formosan
Thao	nicnic	show an unhappy face

8596

PMP *ŋitŋit₂ annoyance, irritation

WMP
Pangasinan	ŋitŋít	annoyance or inconvenience caused by importunity or quarrel; to show such annoyance (e.g. by gnashing the teeth in anger)
Tagalog	ŋitŋít	rage, fury; suppressed rage or fury; intensity
	mag-ŋitŋít	to feel anger but to be suppressing it

Note: With root *-ŋiC ‘anger, irritation’.

28833

*ŋidam cravings of a pregnant woman

6064

PWMP *ŋidam cravings of a pregnant woman [doublet: *kidam 'miss, crave, long for']

WMP
Bikol	ŋídam	pregnant
Javanese	ŋiḍam	feel cravings (of a pregnant woman)

30814

*ŋidaw toothless

8564

PAN *ŋidaw toothless

Formosan
Kavalan	m-ŋizaw	toothless due to age
WMP
Uma	ŋiro	toothless
Bare'e	ŋiro	toothless (also of things, as a saw that has lost ‘teeth’)

Note: Given the extremely strong tendency for referents relating to the nasal and oral area in Austronesian languages to be represented by morphemes that begin with a velar nasal (Blust 2003a) this comparison could be a product of convergence. However, given the perfect agreement between these words in both form and meaning it must be assumed provisionally that they are valid cognates.

28834

*ŋijuŋ nose

6065

PMP *ŋijuŋ nose [doublet: *ijuŋ]

WMP
Maranao	ŋiroŋ	nose
Mongondow	ŋiruŋ, ŋiuŋ	nose
CMP
Ngadha	ŋizu	nose
Riung	ŋizuŋ	nose
Elat	nilun	nose

Note: It is possible that all of these items reflect *ijuŋ ‘nose’, with an initial velar nasal that was acquired either by loss of a morpheme boundary in an earlier affixed form *maŋ-ijuŋ, or by metanalysis in an earlier reduplicated form *ijuŋ-ijuŋ.

28835

*ŋik squeal, screech, shriek, etc.

6066

PMP *ŋik squeal, screech, shriek, etc. [doublet: *ŋikŋik]

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋik	to grunt, as young pigs do
Javanese	ŋik	sound of labored breathing; bowing of a stringed instrument
OC
Rotuman	ŋī	whimper
Fijian	ŋī	to squeak, as a bat, squeal, as a pig
Tongan	ŋī	whimper
Rennellese	ŋii	to peep, squeak, squeal; be hoarse

28836

*ŋikŋik squeal, screech, shriek, etc.

6067

PMP *ŋikŋik squeal, screech, shriek, etc. [doublet: *ŋik]

WMP
Ilokano	ŋ<ar>ikŋik	high-pitched, shrieking laughter (said of females; ungik is used for pigs)
Bontok	ŋikŋik	to chirrup; the chirruping of rice birds
Kankanaey	ŋikŋík	to chirp, screech, shriek, scream, squeal, squeak; creak
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋékŋék	to cry, to yelp (of the cry of pain or fear of a dog)
Ibaloy	man-ŋikŋik	to whimper, the beginning of a cry (as child, puppy in the night when cold)
	ma-ŋikŋik	continually whimpering
Minangkabau	ŋéŋék	to fret, of little children, whine continuously
OC
Nggela	ŋiŋi	cry quietly
Tongan	ŋīŋī (length unexplained)	whimper

11932

POC *ŋiŋik high-pitched cry

Note: Also Kankanaey ŋíŋik ‘to grunt’, ŋikíŋik ‘jabber, chatter, gabble’.

30395

*ŋilu painful sensation in teeth, as from eating something sour

7503

PAN *ŋilu painful sensation in teeth, as from eating something sour [doublet: *ñilu]

Formosan
Paiwan	ŋilu	pain, tartness
	me-ŋilu	to cause to smart
WMP
Agta (Eastern)	ŋilo	sensitive teeth
Tagalog	pa-ŋi-ŋiló	putting the teeth on edge; nerve pain at edge of a tooth
Bikol	ŋílo	describing the sensation one gets in the teeth from a screeching noise, or from eating something sour or very cold
Masbatenyo	ŋiló	painfully sensitive. This usually results from eating something sour or tart, or from a shrill sound
Aklanon	ŋiló(h)	very sour, acrid, caustic
	maka-ŋi-ŋílo(h)	causes one to grimace, sets the teeth on edge (as when eating something very sour or hearing a grating noise)
Waray-Waray	ŋiló	having intense or giggling sensation felt at the tooth edge
Cebuano	ŋilú	setting the teeth on edge, causing the spine to tingle (said of eating sour things, as unripe mangoes, shrill noises, having teeth filed)
Maranao	ŋilo	rasping sensation
Binukid	ŋilu	for sour fruit to cause a tingling sensation in one’s teeth, to set one’s teeth on edge; for a scratching or shrill sound to cause one’s spine to tingle
Tausug	ŋilu	the uncomfortable feeling at the edge of one’s teeth felt when hearing a scratchy sound, eating something sour
	ŋ<um>ilu	(for one’s teeth) to have such feeling
Kiput	ŋilaw	unbearable feeling, as when hearing someone scratch his fingernails on a blackboard, or a strange sensation in the teeth, as when eating something very sour
Malay	ŋilu	nerve-pain or discomfort (neuralgia, nervous headache, teeth on edge)
Karo Batak	ŋilu	feel cold ‘in one’s bones’; on edge, of the teeth, as when coming into contact with something very cold
Toba Batak	ŋilu	on edge, of the teeth when coming into contact with something very sour
Balinese	ŋilu	feeble, dead; on edge (teeth)
Tontemboan	ŋilu	on edge, of the teeth; also the unpleasant feeling one gets on hearing a scratching or grating sound
	ka-ŋilu-an	to be put on edge, of the teeth (as when eating something very sour)
Buginese	ŋilu	painful sensation, as of arthritis in one’s knee
CMP
Komodo	ŋilu	tart, sour
Rotinese	ni-nilu	sour, as a tamarind fruit
Moa	nilu	sour
	m-nilu	sour
Wetan	m-nili	sour

7504

PWMP *ka-ŋilu (gloss uncertain)

WMP
Masbatenyo	ka-ŋiló	painful
Bare'e	ka-ŋilu	the pain of rheumatism, yaws, or teeth being on edge

7505

PAN *ma-ŋilu painful, as of teeth on edge from eating something very sour

Formosan
Paiwan	ma-ŋilu	to have teeth on edge (as from sour pineapple); to ache, sting
WMP
Tagalog	ma-ŋiló	to feel one’s teeth on edge; to feel a tingling sensation on the edge of one’s teeth while eating green fruit such as mangoes
Masbatenyo	ma-ŋiló	painfully sensitive
Waray-Waray	ma-ŋiló	having intense or giggling sensation felt at the tooth edge
Bare'e	ma-ŋilu	painful, of pain in the joints,as produced by rheumatism and yaws; on edge, of the teeth, as when eating something sour
Tolaki	mo-ŋilu	have sensitive teeth
Kulisusu	mo-ŋilu	sour
Mandar	ma-ŋilu	to ache (of the teeth); on edge (Mills 1975)
Buginese	ma-ŋilu	feel painful sensation, as in the teeth after eating a mango
CMP
Wetan	m-nili	sour
Soboyo	ma-ŋilu-i	sour

7506

PWMP *ŋilu-an have a painful feeling in the teeth, as when eating something very sour or cold, or hearing a screeching or scratching sound

WMP
Bikol	ŋilu-an	to have the feeling that one gets in the teeth from a screeching noise, or from eating something sour or very cold; to get a shiver down one’s spine
Toba Batak	ŋilu-an	have a cold sensation in the teeth, as when hearing a scratching sound

Note: Also Thao kun-nishir ‘get a sudden, strong sensation of sourness in the teeth, as when eating an acidic fruit’, Hanunóo ŋídlis ‘setting of the teeth on edge’, Malagasy maha-dilo ‘to set the teeth on edge’, ma-dilo ‘the tamarind tree’, Old Javanese ŋelu ‘headache’, a-ŋelu ‘to have a headache’, Manggarai ŋilur ‘set the teeth on edge’, Leti m-li-lilu, nam-lilu ‘sour’. Although the aberrant Manggarai form ŋilur retains the meaning reconstructed for this form in at least PMP, all other reflexes recorded so far in CMP languages mean ‘sour’, suggesting that in the languages of eastern Indonesia the sense had begun to shift from a description of the sensation of the experiencer to a description of the quality of the substance that produced this sensation.

32592

*ŋina price, worth, cost

10973

PPh *ŋina price, worth, cost

WMP
Yami	ŋina	price, worth
	ŋina-ŋina-en	want to buy
	ŋina-nawa	dangerous
Itbayaten	ka-ñina-ñina	costliness
	ma-ñina	dear, costly, expensive
Ibatan	ma-ŋina	costly, expensive, valuable
	ka-ŋína-en	to increase the price of
Ilokano	ŋína	price; cost; worth; value
	ag-impapa-ŋína	to play hard to get; to pretentiously show off material wealth although poor
	ag-pa-ŋína	to be vain; conceited; to assume to be more important than one actually is
	i-pa-ŋína	to increase the price of
	na-ŋína	expensive, costly, dear; precious
	pa-ŋiná-an	to set a price on; to charge
	tagi-ŋiná-en	to consider something expensive
	ŋ<um>ína	to go up in price
	ŋiná-an	to pay
Bontok	na-ŋína	to be expensive
	pa-ŋína	to raise the price of something
Ifugaw	mun-ŋína	to buy; to sell (said to be from Ilokano)

28841

*ŋiŋ buzz, hum

6072

PMP *ŋiŋ buzz, hum [doublet: *ŋi(ŋ)ŋiŋ]

WMP
Malay	ŋuŋ-ŋiŋ	the hum of bumble-bees
Karo Batak	ŋiŋ	sound of a mosquito in the ear
Sundanese	ŋéŋ	buzzing or rushing sound in the ear
OC
Fijian	ŋī	buzz, as a mosquito

Note: Also Malay ŋéŋ ‘exclamation for driving away dogs’.

28840

*ŋiŋi grin, show the teeth

6071

PWMP *ŋiŋi grin, show the teeth [doublet: *ŋisŋis₁]

WMP
Maranao	ŋiŋi	angle of the mouth
Toba Batak	ŋiŋi	tooth
Sichule	ŋiŋi	gums

Note: Also Toba Batak ŋilŋil ‘show the teeth’.

28842

*ŋi(ŋ)ŋiŋ buzz, hum

6073

PMP *ŋi(ŋ)ŋiŋ buzz, hum

WMP
Sundanese	ŋéŋŋéŋ-an	buzzing or rushing sound in the ear

11933

POC *ŋiŋiŋ buzz, hum

OC
Nggela	ŋiŋi	buzz, as a mosquito

30257

*ŋipen tooth

7138

PAN *ŋipen tooth

Formosan
Sakizaya	ŋipen	tooth
WMP
Yami (Imorod)	ŋəpən	tooth
Itbayaten	ñipen	tooth
Ilokano	ŋipən	tooth
Agta (Dupaningan)	ŋipan	tooth
Isneg	ŋípan	tooth
Itawis	ŋípan	tooth
	maŋ-ŋipan	to cut a tooth
Kalinga (Guinaang)	ŋípon	tooth
Gaddang	ŋipan	tooth
Casiguran Dumagat	ŋipən	tooth
Pangasinan	ŋipén	tooth
Sambal (Botolan)	ŋipɨn	tooth
Tagalog	ŋípin	tooth
Bikol	ŋípon	tooth, teeth
	ŋí-ŋipón-on	describing someone with large or prominent teeth
Buhid	ŋifun	tooth
Hanunóo	ŋípun	tooth, teeth
Masbatenyo	ŋípon	tooth
	mag-ŋípon	teething, cutting teeth
Aklanon	ŋípon	tooth, teeth
Waray-Waray	ŋípon	tooth
Hiligaynon	ŋípun	tooth, teeth
Cebuano	ŋípun	teeth; teeth of saws, gears, and the like
	ŋípn-an	having serrations or teeth; litter born with teeth
Maranao	ŋipən	tooth
Binukid	ŋipen	tooth (of person, animal); tooth of a saw, gear and the like
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ŋipen	tooth
Manobo (Tigwa)	ŋipɨn	tooth
Lolak	ŋipo	tooth
Mongondow	ŋipon	tooth
Palauan	wiŋəl ^<M	tooth
CMP
Wetan	nia	tooth

7139

POC *ŋipon tooth

OC
Kaulong	ŋin	tooth
Marshallese	ŋiy	tooth
Pohnpeian	ŋih	tooth
Woleaian	ŋii	tooth

28837

*ŋiqik to scream, of an animal

6068

PWMP *ŋiqik to scream, of an animal

WMP
Bontok	ŋíʔik	squeal, of a piglet
Javanese	ŋiék	scream (of an animal)

33563

*ŋisa name

12299

POC *ŋisa name [doublet: *isa]

OC
Sursurunga	ŋisa-	name
Sesake	na-ŋisa-	name
Pwele	na-ŋisa	name

30238

*ŋisi to grin, show the teeth

7107

PMP *ŋisi to grin, show the teeth [doublet: *ŋiŋis₁]

WMP
Tagalog	ŋísi	a grin, snicker, giggle, grimace, snigger, smirk; a broad smile
	pag-ŋísi	to grin, snicker, giggle, grimace, etc.
Bikol	ŋísi	a laugh, smile
	ma-alsom na ŋísi	a sneer (lit. ‘sour smile’)
	ma-ŋísi	to be taken in by someone’s smile
	mag-ŋísi	to smile at, to laugh or chuckle at
	maka-ŋísi	absurd, amusing, comical, funny
	pa-ŋísi	humor
	ŋ<ir>ísi-han	laughter
Cebuano	ŋísi	to grin
Petapa Taje	ŋisi	tooth
Mori Atas	ŋisi	tooth
Wawonii	ŋisi	tooth
Moronene	ŋisi	tooth
Makassarese	ŋísi	to grin, snigger (in anger, while laughing); lie open, of a wound; to whinny loudly, of a horse (thought of as the raising of the upper lip of a whinnying horse)
Wolio	ŋinci	tooth, hook, sting
CMP
Ngadha	ŋísi	keep the mouth open showing the teeth, as in laughing
Vaikenu	nisi-f	tooth
Galoli	nis	tooth
Hoti	lisi-	tooth
Laha	niki	tooth
Hitu	niki	tooth
Seit	niki	tooth
Tifu	ŋisi-n	tooth
OC
Papapana	ŋisi-na	tooth

Note: The basic meaning of this term appears to have been ‘to show the teeth by raising the upper lip’, a gesture characteristic of both joyous and sardonic laughter, and one that is explicitly spelled out in Ngadha, and in Makassarese, where the whinnying of a horse is viewed as the raising of the upper lip before producing sound. Given this interpretation it appears likely that reflexes of *ŋisi ‘tooth’ belong to the same set. Because it contains the phonestheme *ŋ- it is not always easy to distinguish reflexes of this term from other, convergently similar forms (thus Roviana ŋiŋisi ‘to grin’ probably reflects *ŋisŋis (> *ŋiŋis > ŋiŋisi) rather than *ŋisi with CV- reduplication).

28838

*ŋisŋis₁ grin, show the teeth

6069

PMP *ŋisŋis₁ grin, show the teeth [doublet: *ŋiŋi, *ŋisi]

Formosan
Bunun	ŋicŋic	lip
WMP
Ilokano	ŋisŋís	corner of the mouth
Kapampangan	ŋisŋis	show teeth, especially upper teeth
	bala-ŋisŋis	kind of bat which has protruding teeth
Tagalog	ŋisŋís	continued opening of the mouth in grinning, showing teeth
Aklanon	ŋísŋis	to giggle, snicker
Binukid	ŋisŋis	to have to laugh
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ŋisŋis	a person who cannot control his laughter, i.e. he laughs at any provocation; to laugh continually
CMP
Manggarai	ŋiŋis	grin, show teeth
Yamdena	ŋiŋis	gums
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)	nin	tooth

8108

POC *ŋiŋis grin, show the teeth

OC
Kove	ŋiŋi	to laugh
Mengen	ŋiŋi-	tooth
Roviana	ŋiŋisi	to grin

33490

*ŋisŋis₂ high-pitched vocalization

12212

PPh *ŋisŋis₂ high-pitched vocalization

WMP
Ibaloy	man-ŋisŋis	to whine, whimper, esp. of dog’s low sound (as in calling its pups)
Aklanon	ŋísŋis	to giggle, snicker
Cebuano	(ali)-ŋisŋis	making a very high-pitched and piercing noise
Binukid	ŋisŋis	to have to laugh
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ŋisŋis	a person who cannot control his laughter; to laugh his laughter; to laugh his laughter; to laugh continually

29992

(Formosan only)

*ŋiSŋiS beard

6683

PAN *ŋiSŋiS beard

Formosan
Amis	ŋisŋis	beard
Bunun	ŋisŋis	beard
Rukai (Mantauran)	ŋiʔiŋiʔi	beard
Rukai (Tona)	ŋisiŋisi	beard
Puyuma	ŋisŋis	beard
Paiwan	ŋisŋis	beard

Note: If found in PAn, this term was replaced by one or more of the PMP doublets *gumi, *kumi, *gumis, or *kumis.

28839

*ŋitŋit₁ gnaw

6070

PAN *ŋitŋit₁ gnaw [doublet: *ŋatŋat, *ŋetŋet 'gnash the teeth']

Formosan
Amis	ŋitŋit	to gnaw (on bones or wood)
Puyuma	ŋitŋit	bite slowly with the front teeth; gnaw (as rats do)
WMP
Agta (Dupaningan)	ŋítŋit	food stuck between the teeth
Ibaloy	ŋitŋit-an	to nibble at something (as fish to bait, dog eating last scraps on bone); also, to grasp something in the teeth (as in picking up a coin in a contest, or a hangnail)
Pangasinan	ŋitŋít	annoyance or inconvenience caused by importunity or quarrel; to show such annoyance (e.g. by gnashing the teeth in anger)
Karo Batak	ŋitŋit	moth (that eats holes in clothing)
Toba Batak	ŋitŋit	moth

12595

POC *ŋiŋit-i to husk a coconut with the teeth

OC
Tolai	ŋiti	husk a coconut with the teeth
Motu	isi-a	husk a coconut; bite off rim of sugarcane
Mota	ŋit	to bite

33625

*ŋitŋit₂ pitch black, as a moonless night

12366

PPh *ŋitŋit₃ pitch black, as a moonless night

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋitíŋit	dark; sombre; black; pitchy; inky (as deep ponds, shaded caves)
Bikol	ŋitŋít	descriptive of the darkness of night
	ŋitŋít na dulóm	pitch dark

TOP ŋa ŋe ŋi ŋo ŋu

ŋo

ŋodra

ŋodro

ŋoRo

33782

*ŋodra grunt; snore

12561

POC *ŋodra grunt; snore [disjunct: *ŋodro]

OC
Lou	ŋor	to grunt (as a pig), to growl (as a dog), to snore
Gedaged	ŋoz	to grunt (pig), rumble, grumble (man)
Nggela	ŋora	to bark, of a dog
Sa'a	ŋo-ŋora	to snore, to growl at, of a dog, to snort, of a pig
Arosi	ŋora	to snore
Mota	ŋora	to grunt, snort, snore

33783

*ŋodro grunt; snore

12562

POC *ŋodro grunt; snore

OC
Lou	ŋor	to grunt (as a pig), to growl (as a dog), to snore
Tolai	ŋor-ŋor	to snore
Gedaged	ŋoz	to grunt (pig), rumble, grumble (man)
Wayan	(lio) ŋodro	to speak in a hoarse or gravelly voice, speak in a growl, as someone with impaired voicebox
Fijian	ŋodro	to grunt, as a pig; of a person, to moan in pain; a grunt, a moaning sound
Rarotongan	ŋoro	snore, noisy breathing in sleep; to snore, to breathe roughly and hoarsely in sleep
Maori	ŋoro	to snore

Note: Also Bugotu ñuru ‘to snore’.

33814

*ŋoRo to snore, grunt, etc.

12607

POC *ŋoRo to snore, grunt, etc. [doublet: *ŋodro] [disjunct: *ŋek]

OC
Mussau	ŋoo	to snore
Maori	ŋō	to cry, grunt, make any inarticulate sound

28856

*ŋuda young, of plants

6091

PMP *ŋuda young, of plants [doublet: *muda]

WMP
Malagasy	ta-nora	young, juvenile
Simalur	ma-ŋura	young, virginal
Karo Batak	ŋuda	tender, young
	bapa ŋuda	father’s younger brother
Balinese	ŋuda	young, youthful, undeveloped, fresh
	ŋuda-han	younger, too young; premature (of a birth)
Proto-Sangiric	*ŋuda	young
Sangir	ŋura	young forest, low scrub
Bare'e	ma-ŋura	young, not yet old; soft to the touch; of colors, light
	yopo ŋura	young vegetation that sprouts up in cleared land
	tau ma-ŋura	young person, a youth
CMP
Adonara	me-nura	green
Tetun	nura-k	young, of trees, plants and fruits
Yamdena	ŋude	young, of children, fruit, wood, bamboo

Note: Also Malay uda ‘young (in certain expressions only), Toba Batak uda ‘father’s younger brother’, Simalur udo ‘father’s sister’s husband’, Balinese uda ‘young, fresh; naked’, Sasak odaʔ ‘unripe (of fruits), not yet fully developed (bones)’, Tae' ura ‘young’.

Dempwolff (1938) posited *uda, assuming that the forms cited here under *muda and *ŋuda contain fossilized affixes. Although a morphologically complex analysis is possible to maintain in some languages with muda (< *ma-uda?), it is more difficult with *ŋuda, where no appropriate affix of the shape *ŋ is available. To account for the variation in initial consonant across a wide range of languages I prefer to reconstruct doublets, and assume that *ma-ŋuda (with stative prefix *ma-) was reanalyzed in a few languages as a dynamic verb maŋ-uda, thus giving rise to a new base uda, which then underwent a new cycle of affixation with *ma- The motivation for such reanalysis seems fairly transparent, since *ŋ-initial bases are rare, and most of these refer to the oral or nasal region of the face (Blust 2003a).

33154

*ŋuhed young, immature, primarily of plants

11650

PPh *ŋuhed young, immature, primarily of plants [doublet: *aŋ(e)hud]

WMP
Itbayaten	hoŋed ^<M	young, young part, idea of youngness, tender part of a plant, idea of greenness (not of color)
Bikol	ŋuhód	the youngest child in the family; the last born
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	ŋuhed	of a plant or a person, immature physically
Tiruray	ŋuwed	young

11651

PPh *ma-ŋuhed young, immature, primarily of plants

WMP
Itbayaten	ma-hoŋed	young (esp. of fruit), tender, young (plant)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)	me-ŋuhed	of a plant or a person, immature physically

11652

PPh *ka-ŋuhed-an young

WMP
Itbayaten	ka-hoŋd-an	forest with young trees of 5 to 15 years after abandoning the field in swidden agriculture
Bikol (Naga)	ka-ŋudh-án	youngest child

Note: This comparison was pointed out courtesy of David Zorc.

28857

*ŋuk grunt, moan, etc.

6092

PMP *ŋuk grunt, moan, etc. [doublet: *ŋukŋuk]

WMP
Malay (Perak)	ŋok-ŋak	babble of noise
OC
Tolai	ŋuk	whine, murmur, cry
Gedaged	ŋuk-ŋuk	stutter; catch one's breath (when crying)
Rotuman	ŋū	grumble, complain, grunt
Tongan	ŋū	grunt, make a grunting noise
Samoan	ŋū	growl
Hawaiian	nū	to cough; to roar, as wind; grunting, as of pigs; cooing, as of doves; patter, as of rain; groaning, deep sighing, moaning

28858

*ŋukŋuk grunt, moan, etc.

6093

PMP *ŋukŋuk grunt, moan, etc.

WMP
Kankanaey	ŋokŋók	to bay, bark, of many dogs together
Hanunóo	ŋukŋúk	noise made by monkeys, often referred to in ambáhan (chanted verse)
Chamorro	ŋokŋok	unclear speech, sometimes a temporary condition resulting from accident

11934

POC *ŋuŋuk grunt, moan

OC
Petats	ŋuk	pig grunt
Hawaiian	nūnū (length unexplained)	moaning, groaning, cooing, grunting

28859

*ŋulŋul₁ arthritic or rheumatic pain

6094

PMP *ŋulŋul₁ arthritic or rheumatic pain [doublet: *ŋutŋut₂ 'throbbing pain']

WMP
Cebuano	ŋulŋul	deep-seated pain over a wide area

11935

POC *ŋuŋul arthritic or rheumatic pain

OC
Niue	ŋuŋu	rheumatism
Samoan	ŋuŋu	name given to a number of complaints, including rheumatism, gout, arthritis, etc.

30827

*ŋulŋul₂ to wail, cry out in grief

8597

PWMP *ŋulŋul₂ to wail, cry out in grief

WMP
Ifugaw	ŋulŋúl	lamentations performed in a more or less chanting tune by one or several women (but not in unison) in front of a dead person sitting on a death chair
Ifugaw (Batad)	ŋulŋul	for someone to wail in crying, especially in grief
Tagalog	pag-ŋulŋól	sulking and grumbling; bursts of loud crying with intermittent gasps for breath
Malay	me-ŋoŋol	to weep, of a child

28865

*ŋuŋ buzz, hum

6100

PMP *ŋuŋ buzz, hum [doublet: *ŋu(ŋ)ŋuŋ]

WMP
Malay	ŋuŋ-ŋiŋ	the hum of bumble-bees
Karo Batak	ŋuŋ	onomatopoetic for a sound that is deeper and duller than that represented by ŋiŋ
Sundanese	ŋuŋ	sound in the ear (deeper and duller than ŋéŋ)
Javanese	ŋuŋ	whine of an engine
OC
Lau	ŋū	hum, chant, sing
Arosi	ŋuu	hum

28866

*ŋu(ŋ)ŋuŋ buzz, hum

6101

PMP *ŋu(ŋ)ŋuŋ buzz, hum

WMP
Javanese	ŋuŋŋuŋ	whine of an engine

11936

PCEMP *ŋuŋuŋ buzz, hum

CMP
Buruese	ŋuŋu-n	buzz, hum
OC
Tongan	ŋūŋū	to hum
Rennellese	ŋuuŋuu (length unexplained)	speak quietly; hum

28860

*ŋurut growl, whine

6095

PMP *ŋurut growl, whine

WMP
Cebuano	ŋulut	growling in defiance or complaint (of dogs)
Kayan (Uma Juman)	ŋurut	whimper constantly, asking for things (of a child)

8756

POC *ŋuru to growl, as a dog

OC
Mbula	ŋurŋur	growling (of a dog); grunt at, growl at (used of pigs and dogs)
Nggela	ŋuru	to roar, rumble, as thunder; to growl, as a dog; groan; to grunt in a dance
Sa'a	ŋuru ~ ŋu-ŋuru	to growl or roar, of animals; to mumble or groan, of persons
Arosi	ŋuru	to growl, of a dog; mew, hum, buzz, hum a song or chorus
Wayan	ŋudru	(of a pig or dog) growl; make a deep, throaty sound that continues for some seconds
Niue	ŋulu	to growl (as a dog with a bone)
Samoan	ŋulu	make a hollow sound
	ta-ŋulu	hit, strike with a thud, thump or other hollow sound
	tā-ŋulu	snore
Tuvaluan	ŋulu	rhythmic grunting (as of gong-beaters at a dance)
Rarotongan	ŋuru	a murmuring, snarling sound, as of an angry dog or other animal; the rumbling of thunder; a deep moaning sound of distress; a sound showing disapprobation; groaning, as a deep moan of pain; to rumble, snarl, growl

Note: Also Hanunóo ŋúrub ‘dog’s growl (with the mouth closed)’, Cebuano ŋúlut ‘growling in defiance or complaint (of a dog)’, Lau ŋū ‘to hum, chant, sing; a song, chant, humming’, ŋudu ‘mumble; mew’, ŋunu ‘murmur, whisper’, 'Āre'āre nuu ‘sing, hum; to sing (of birds), whistle, chirp’. An initial velar nasal appears in a number of apparently unrelated words meaning ‘growl, grunt, roar’ and the like. It is possible that either Hanunóo ŋúrub or Cebuano ŋúlut are related to reflexes of POc *ŋuru (as PMP *ŋudub, or *ŋudut) but the presence of multiple possibilities for comparison weakens each comparison individually, and strengthens the hypothesis that some of these forms are products of chance convergence brought about by frequent use of the phonestheme *ŋ (Blust 2003a).

30145

*ŋuRuR to moan, groan, grunt

6889

POC *ŋuRuR to moan, groan, grunt

OC
Gedaged	ŋuzuz	to grumble (in discontent)
Nggela	ŋulu	death rattle in throat
'Āre'āre	nuru	murmur, growl, mumble, groan
Sa'a	ŋulu	to roar, of surf
Arosi	ŋuru	to growl, of a dog; mew, hum, buzz, hum a song or
Tongan	ŋū	to grunt, make a grunting noise
Niue	ŋū	to moan, grunt, roar
Futunan	ŋū	to speak
Samoan	ŋū	to growl, as a dog
Tuvaluan	ŋū	grunt, coo
Kapingamarangi	ŋū-ŋū	to mumble, mutter, talk softly (in a low voice)
Nukuoro	ŋuu	a faint sound, like humming
Rennellese	ŋū-ŋū	speak quietly, hum
Anuta	ŋuu	a hum or soft groan; to utter such a sound
Maori	ŋū	moan, groan
Hawaiian	nū	to cough; to roar, as wind; grunting, as of pigs; cooing, as of doves; patter, as of rain; groaning, deep sighing, moaning

30828

*ŋusŋus to snore, growl, grunt

8598

PAN *ŋusŋus to snore, growl, grunt

Formosan
Tsou	rongo-sngusngu	to snore
WMP
Ilokano	ŋusúŋos	to growl (said of animals whose food is being taken away)
Pangasinan	ŋosŋós	the jumping up and squealing etc. of dogs greeting their master; noises made by very young children wanting food or attention
Bikol	mag-ŋusŋós	to whine (a dog)
Aklanon	ŋúsŋus	to whine, whimper; purr
Toba Batak	mar-ŋuŋus	to grunt, of pigs

33405

*ŋusŋús to grate, scour, rub hard on something

12086

PPh *ŋusŋús to grate, scour, rub hard on something

WMP
Bontok	ŋusŋus-ə́n	to grate, as fresh corn or sweet potato; a grater
Cebuano	ŋusŋús	to scour, rub hard to remove something

30419

*ŋusuq nasal area; snout

7553

PAN *ŋusuq nasal area; snout

Formosan
Amis	ŋosoʔ	nose
Saaroa	ŋuso	mouth, lips
WMP
Yami	ŋoso	mouth
Itbayaten	ŋoso	bad smell of the mouth; inner part of the mouth
Kapampangan	ŋusúʔ	upper lip
	ŋusw-án	stick upper lip out at someone
Tagalog	ŋúsoʔ	the snout of animals; muzzle; the nose, mouth and jaws of an animal; the trunk of an elephant; the snout of a pig; by extension, the part that stands out, especially the bow of a ship or boat
	ŋusúʔ-an	to express dislike of someone by pursing the lips
Bikol	ŋúsoʔ	mouth
	ma-ŋúsoʔ	talkative
	mag-ŋúsoʔ	to reproach, admonish
	ŋu-ŋusóʔ-on	describing someone with a large mouth
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki	*ŋusu	snout
Mori Bawah	ŋusu	exterior mouth area, snout (Mbib>Mead 1998)
Tolaki	ŋusu	phlegm (Mead 1998)
Kulisusu	me-ŋunsu	to sniff (Mead 1998)
Popalia	ŋusu	mouth
CMP
Laha	nuku	mouth
OC
Lou	ŋusu-	lips
Loniu	ŋusu-	lips
Nali	ŋusu-	lips
Lele	ŋusu-n	his/her lip
Papitalai	ŋucu-	lip
Mussau	ŋusu	nose
Tabar	ŋuju-	mouth
Mendak	e-ŋus	mouth
Kove	nuru	nose
Takia	ŋudu-	nose
Motu	udu	mouth; nose; beak
Pokau	nutu	mouth
Hoava	ŋuzu	mouth
Roviana	ŋuzu	mouth
Marau₂	nusu-	mouth
Pileni	ŋutu	mouth
Apma	ŋusu	nose
Maxbaxo	ŋunsu-	nose
Wayan	ŋusu	mouth of an animal; external mouth or lips of a person, fish, etc, beak (of bird or turtle); snout or muzzle of a dog, pig, etc.; entrance or opening to certain objects with cylindrical or long narrow passage behind (bottle, kettle, teapot, river; spout or nozzle of pipe, hose, etc.; spokesman or voice
	vaka-ŋusu	have a mouth, beak, snout, spout, etc.
Fijian	ŋusu-	the mouth
	ŋusu ni maŋana	the labia pudenda
	ŋusu-ŋusu cā	foul-mouthed
Tongan	ŋutu	mouth (but the mouth of a river is its muivai); beak; orifice; mouthpiece; brim; opening or hollow (of a canoe); mouth (muzzle) or barrel of a gun; orally, by word of mouth
	ŋutu-ŋutu ua	double-tongued
Niue	ŋutu	mouth, entrance (e.g. of cave, channel in reef); beak of pipefish
	ŋutu loa	long-tongued person, gossip, busybody
Futunan	ŋutu	mouth, beak, muzzle; orifice, neck (of a bottle)
Samoan	ŋutu	mouth; beak
	ŋutu-ava	mouth of a channel or passage in the reef
	ŋutu-vale	use indecent language
Tuvaluan	ŋutu	mouth; beak
	kau ŋutu	corners of the mouth
	kau ŋutu ava	mouth of reef channel
	lau ŋutu	lip
Kapingamarangi	ŋudu	mouth
	ŋudu daalo	spear foreshaft
	ŋudu di waga	prow of canoe
Nukuoro	ŋudu	mouth; mouth of, rim of
	ŋudu ai	act as an interpreter
Rennellese	ŋutu	mouth, beak, breath
	haka-ŋutu	to eat a great deal, overeat
	ŋutu-a	to be heard of; to spread, as news or fame
	ŋutu aga	side of a trail, roadside
Anuta	ŋutu	mouth; cutting edge (of knife, scissors, axe, adze, etc.) or the striking edge of a club or point of a spear
	ŋutu korekore	to curse someone or shout in anger
Rarotongan	ŋutu	lip, rim, edge, entrance, orifice
	ŋutu are	a household, members of a family; a doorway
	ŋutu ava	the entrace of a harbor
	ŋutu pā	a door, the entrance to a house, gateway
	ŋutu roa	symbolically, the turtle; in the ancient chants the turtle was seldom referred to or spoken of as ‘onu, but as ŋutu roa
Maori	ŋutu	lip; beak; rim of a vessel, mouthpiece of a calabash; mouth, entrance, of a cave, river, etc.; talk, gossip
	ŋutu roa	a name for the kiwi
Hawaiian	nuku	beak, snout, tip, end; spout, beaker of a pitcher; mouth or entrace, as of a harbor, river, or mountain pass; scolding, raving, ranting, grumbling
	nuku-kau	a variety of taro
	nuku-manu	a variety of taro; the corm is pointed like a bird’s beak (Kauaʻi only)
	nuku wai	stream mouth

Note: Also Atayal (Squliq) ŋuhuu ‘nose’, Kankanaey ŋosʔó ‘projecting, shooting forward (applied to the lips)’, Rejang ŋus ‘mouth’, Balaesang ŋudu, Dampelas ŋuju, Pendau ŋunju ‘mouth’, Bare'e ŋuju ‘external mouth; snout (as of a pig); beak of a bird’, Leti nursu ‘snot, nasal mucus’, Nauna kuc, Pak musu-, Likum kusu- ‘lips’.

29916

(Formosan only)

*ŋuSuN nosebleed

6589

PAN *ŋuSuN nosebleed

Formosan
Thao	nuzush ^<M	blood from the nose
	un-lha-nuzush-an	have a nosebleed
Paiwan	ŋusulʸ	blood from the nose; nosebleed
	pe-ŋusulʸ	have a nosebleed

Note: Given just two witnesses that differ in the order of consonants it is impossible to determine the directionality of change, and this reconstruction may therefore have been *ŋuNuS rather than *ŋuSuN.

29985

*ŋuSuR nasal mucus

6674

PAN *ŋuSuR nasal mucus

Formosan
Seediq	ŋusul	nasal mucus

7162

PMP *ŋuhuR nasal mucus

WMP
Itbayaten	ŋohoy	nasal mucus

28862

*ŋutŋut₁ mumble, whimper

6097

PWMP *ŋutŋut₁ mumble, whimper

WMP
Tagalog	ŋutŋót	whimper
Karo Batak	ŋutŋut	mumble, murmur

Note: Iban ŋut ‘pig’, Malay ŋutŋut (secondary reduplication) ‘mumbling (from age)’ may reflect the simple root. Tolai ŋut ‘whine, murmur, cry’ could reflect either the simple or the reduplicated root (cf. Blust 1977a).

30203

*ŋutŋut₂ throbbing pain

7035

PMP *ŋutŋut₂ throbbing pain [doublet: *ŋulŋul]

WMP
Waray-Waray	ŋotŋót	the act of feeling or suffering from severe, sharp, smarting pain
Cebuano	ŋutŋút	pulsating, throbbing pain, as of a boil; emotional pain, as when jilted
Iban	ŋuŋut	(of pain) ‘murmur’ or throb

7036

POC *ŋuŋut₁ painful; to pain

OC
Tolai (Nodup)	ŋuŋut	pain; painful; to pain

Note: Also Iban uŋut ‘(fig., of pain) nagging’

30829

*ŋutŋut₃ to smoulder, of a fire

8599

PWMP *ŋutŋut₃ to smoulder, of a fire

WMP
Iban	ŋuŋut	to smoulder, set light to
Karo Batak	ŋutŋut api	to smoulder, of a fire

Note: Also Iban uŋut ‘burning slowly, smouldering; (fig.) making slow progress’. I assume that this form is reanalyzed from ŋuŋut on the assumption that the base-initial consonant was an active verb prefix, since the great majority of words that begin with a velar nasal are affixed bases that begin with a vowel.

32593

*ŋutŋut₄ to gnaw

10974

PMP *ŋutŋut₄ to gnaw

WMP
Yami	mi-ŋotŋot	to gnaw on bones
	ŋotŋot-an	to gnaw on bones
Itbayaten	ŋotŋot	leftover food, partly-eaten (yams, foodstuffs), by rats, other animal, person
Ibatan	ŋotŋot	bite and chew on a piece of fruit, corn, etc.
Ilokano	ŋutŋót	to gnaw at something
Bontok	ŋutŋut	a corn cob after the kernels have been removed
	ŋutŋut-an	to eat corn on the cob; to gnaw, of rats
Tagalog	ŋutŋót	noise of gnawing such as that made by mice or rats
Bikol	mag-ŋutŋót	to chew or gnaw on tough or fibrous things (as a water buffalo chewing on its tethering rope)

12624

POC *ŋuŋut₂ to gnaw, chew at

OC
Tolai	ŋut	to gnaw, nibble, esp. at the fingernails
	ŋuŋut	to keep gnawing or nibbling

10975

PPh *ŋutŋut-en to chew or gnaw on something

WMP
Ilokano	ŋutŋut-én	to gnaw at something
Bikol	ŋutŋot-ón	to chew or gnaw on tough or fibrous things (as a water buffalo chewing on its tethering rope)

Note: The Tolai monosyllable is assumed to be a back-formation from a base ŋuŋut which was reinterpreted as a durative form of the verb.

30462

*ŋutu louse

7654

POC *ŋutu louse [doublet: *kutu]

OC
Tigak	ŋut	louse
Mendak	ŋut	kill lice by biting
Ghari	ŋutu	louse
Talise	ŋutu	louse

30920

*ŋuyaq to chew, masticate

8766

PWMP *ŋuyaq to chew, masticate

WMP
Tagalog	ŋuyáʔ	chewing, masticating
	mag-ŋuyáʔ	to chew; to masticate; to crush or grind with the teeth
	paŋ-ŋuyáʔ	molar; suitable for grinding
	ŋuyaʔ-ín	to chew, to masticate
Bikol	mag-ŋuyáʔ	to chew, masticate
Kadazan Dusun	kuzaʔ	to chew, masticate
	mo-ŋuzaʔ	to masticate, chew
	kuza-on	to be chewed
Iban	kuñah	chew
	ŋuñah	to chew
Malay	kuñah	mastication
	me-ŋuñah makan	to masticate food

Note: This is an extremely problematic comparison, and it is difficult to know how to treat it. While the forms cited here clearly suggest a historical connection that is not based on borrowing, none of them agree with regard to recurrent sound correspondences. Kadazan Dusun, Iban and Malay point to initial *k, but Tagalog and Bikol indicate *ŋ-, while Tagalog, Bikol and Kadazan Dusun point to medial *y, while Iban and Malay point instead to a palatal nasal. Tentatively I posit *ŋuyaq and assume that Kadazan Dusun kuzaʔ and Iban and Malay kuñah are back-formation from mo-ŋuyaʔ, with rightward-spreading nasality altering *y to /ñ/ in the latter two languages prior to denasalization of the base, hence *maŋ-ŋuyaq > *maŋ-ŋuñaq (base *ŋuñaq) > *ma-ŋuñaq (reanalyzed base *kuñaq). It may appear equally likely that the Tagalog and Bikol forms are products of metanalysis from earlier *maŋ- + *kuyaq, but given the far greater frequency of homorganic nasal substitution in *k-initial bases than of nasal deletion in *ŋ-initial bases, the psychological precondition for a reanalysis of *ŋ- as k- would appear far stronger than any condition favoring a reanalysis in the opposite direction.

28863

*ŋuy(e)qa vex, torment

6098

PWMP *ŋuy(e)qa vex, torment

WMP
Ilokano	ŋoyʔá	agony, death struggle
Javanese	ŋuya(-ŋuya)	vex, nag, tease, pester

28864

*ŋuyŋuy whine, whimper, as a child

6099

PPh *ŋuyŋuy whine, whimper, as a child

WMP
Ilokano	ŋoyŋóy	whimper importunately (said of children)
Tagalog	ŋuyŋóy	prolonged sulky weeping of a child; crying of a child with the tantrums
Aklanon	ŋuyŋuy	whimper, cry, simper (in the fashion of a spoiled child trying to get its way)
Cebuano	ŋuyŋúy, da-ŋuyŋúy	wail, cry with deep sorrow
Malay	məŋ-ŋoŋoy	to weep, of a child

Note: AlsoTongan ŋī ‘whimper’. Zorc (1971) reconstructs PPh *ŋuyŋuy ‘weep’.

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Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition
Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel
www.trussel2.com/ACD
2010: revision 6/21/2020
email: Blust (content) – Trussel (production)
CognateSets-Index-ŋ