Updated: 6/21/2020
| Updated: 6/21/2020 |
Austronesian Comparative Dictionary
Cognate Sets
ab ac aC ad ag ai aj ak al am an aN añ an aŋ ap aq ar aR as aS at au aw ay az
24946 *-a₁ imperative suffix 383 PAN *-a₁ imperative suffix
Note: Also Kanakanabu -au ‘imperative suffix’, Niue ā ‘sign of emphatic imperative’. Agreements in Saaroa, Bikol, Aklanon, and Mansaka suggest that this imperative suffix corresponded to the object focus of non-imperative forms. There is a fairly high probability that it ultimately derives from the same source as *-a ‘subjunctive’ and *-a ‘3sg. object marker’.
24948 *-a₃ subjunctive suffix 387 PAN *-a₃ subjunctive suffix
Note: Possibly the same affix as *-a ‘imperative’, and *-a ‘3sg. object’. For arguments supporting the distinction of *-a ‘imperative’ and *-a ‘subjunctive’ cf. Wolff (1973:90).
24941 *a₁ article 378 PMP *a₁ article
Note: The history of this morpheme is problematic. In the Solomons and in Central Pacific languages reflexes of *a function as a personal article, in contrast to the common noun article *na. Pawley (1972:58) reconstructs "PEOc" *na/a ‘common article’, and *(q)a ‘personal article’, thus positing a rather dubious distinction between contrasting articles *a and *(q)a. Similarly, Walsh and Biggs (1966) posit PPn *ʔa ‘personal article’, but reconstruct *ʔ- purely on the basis of Tongan ʔa-. Since Tongan is known to have added initial glottal stop in the reflexes of some other grammatical morphemes (Clark 1976) the evidence for distinguishing *a ‘common article’ and *qa ‘personal article’ appears to be dangerously thin. This morpheme may be a sporadic shortening of *na which happened independently in a number of Oceanic languages. If so, however, it is puzzling that it often replaced *i as a personal article rather than continuing to function as a common noun article.
24942 *a₂ conjunction: and 379 PMP *a₂ conjunction: and [doublet: *maS, *may]
Note: Also Maori ā ‘and, and then (only connecting successive actions or events)’.
24947 384 385 PAN *ni-a 3sg. agent/possessor
386 POC *-ña 3sg. possessor of inalienable possessed nouns
Note: Also Enggano -dia, Mentawai inia ‘3sg. possessor’. As noted in Blust (1977), earlier reconstructions of the 3sg. genitive pronoun such as *-ña? (Dyen 1974) and *-na (Dahl 1976:122) erred in interpreting *ni-á as monomorphemic. As a result many irregular reflexes (Atayal, Tagalog, Javanese, Gorontalo, etc.) remained unexplained. I assume ultimate stress, since the genitive marker *ni is the non-contrastive element in genitive constructions. Given an etymon of such a shape and obviously high list and text frequency, it is not difficult to see how the initial consonant and following vowel sporadically contracted to a palatal nasal which then underwent a regular merger with *n in many daughter languages.
24943 380 PMP *a₃ exclamation, interjection
Note: Also Nias aha ‘interjection: aha!’, Old Javanese ah ‘exclamation: ah!, oh!, ha!’, Old Javanese aha ‘exclamatory particle: ah!, oh!, alas!’, Palauan chach ‘oh! (exclamation of surprise)’, Komodo aʔ ‘interjection: ah!’, Sika ʔa ‘exclamation of surprise’, Rotinese aʔa ‘exclamation’. The obviously iconic and universal character of this form should not discourage us from a reconstruction, since proto-languages were no less likely than attested languages to contain such words.
24944 *a₄ hesitation particle 381 PAN *a₄ hesitation particle
24945 *a₅ ligature 382 PAN *a₅ ligature [disjunct: *Sa₁]
24770 *abá exclamation: ah!, oh!, alas! 24 PWMP *abá exclamation: ah!, oh!, alas!
Note: Also Cebuano abaʔa ‘particle indicating disapproval (literary)’, Subanen/Subanun abaa ‘interjection of grief or wonder’.
24757 *aba₁ father 10 PAN *aba₁ father
Note: Also Maranao abo ‘father’, Moken apoŋ ‘father’, Bare'e ambo ‘stepfather’, Mandar abi ‘father’, Buginese amboʔ ‘father’, Wolio awo ‘stepfather, stepmother, etc.’, Yamdena abe ‘mother-in-law’. Apparently a nursery word which has resisted normal sound change in a number of languages (e.g. Tiruray, Malay, and Bimanese, where we would expect -w-; Malagasy, where we would expect -v-).
Although the Wolio form is cited in Anceaux 1987 as an Finally, although Malay abaŋ ‘elder brother’ could be analyzed as aba-ŋ (with fossilized vocative suffix), and hence compared with the other forms cited here, I prefer to treat it as distinct and to withdraw the etymon *ab(ae)ŋ ‘elder brother’ proposed in Blust (1970).
24756 *aba₂ carry pick-a-back 9 PPh *aba₂ carry pick-a-back [doublet: *baba₁]
Note: Also Ifugaw abbá ‘carry a baby or little child on one's back with or without a blanket’, Maranao ababa ‘carry, as on the back’. These and the above forms may all reflect *a-baba.
24748 *abag join forces, cooperate in working 1 PPh *abag join forces, cooperate in working
Note: Also Tagalog habág ‘compassion’, Maranao aoag ‘distant relative’. Possibly a chance resemblance.
24749 *abaká Manila hemp: Musa textilis 2 PPh *abaká Manila hemp: Musa textilis
Note: Also Agutaynen abaka ‘abaca hemp, used to weave clothing, ropes, mats, baskets, etc.’. Said to be a loanword because the abaca plant does not grow on Agutaya island.
24750 *abal abal beetle sp. 3 PPh *abal abal beetle sp.
Note: Tiruray normally reflects PPh *-b- as /w/. This item may be a loan from an undetermined source, or perhaps a chance resemblance.
33006 *abála to bother, disturb, annoy or inconvenience someone 11491 PPh *abála to bother, disturb, annoy or inconvenience someone
Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.
24758 *abaŋ₁ ambush, block the way; obstacle, hindrance 11 PMP *abaŋ₁ ambush, block the way; obstacle, hindrance [doublet: *qambat]
8517 PWMP *maŋ-abaŋ to block the way, ambush someone
Note: Also Itbayaten abaŋ ‘lie in wait’.
24759 *abaŋ₂ ditch 12 PWMP *abaŋ₂ ditch
13 PWMP *ŋ-abaŋ make a gutter, ditch, or channel
Note: Perhaps also Malay abaŋ ‘dimple’. Kayan abaŋ is regular only if it reflects earlier *ambaŋ. Malay abaŋ-an is irregular in any case, since *b normally became Malay /w/ in the sequence *-aba.
24760 *abaŋ₃ rent 14 PWMP *abaŋ₃ rent
24751 *abat₁ give a supporting hand 4 PWMP *abat₁ give a supporting hand
24752 *abat₂ spirit that causes sickness 5 PPh *abat₂ spirit that causes sickness
Note: Also Manobo (Dibabawon) abot ‘sickness in which the victim vomits red vomitus, caused by an evil spirit’.
24753 6 Note: Also Asilulu apat ‘the unhealed wound of the recently circumcised penis’.
33992 *abat₄ to extract from body (as sliver, or imagined cause of illness in shamanic practice) 12837 PPh *abat₄ to extract from body (as sliver, or imagined cause of illness in shamanic practice)
Note: Possibly identical to *abat₂ ‘spirit that causes sickness’.
24754 7 12080 Note: Also Itbayaten havavaw ‘shallowness’, Tagalog hambáw ‘superficial, shallow’. With root *-baw₁ ‘high; top’.
24755 8 Note: Iban ambai ‘lover, sweetheart’ may also be related, although this remains unclear.
24958 *a(m)bek mat 410 PWMP *a(m)bek mat
24828 173 POC *abi take hold of, grasp [disjunct: *qampi]
24762 *abij copulate 16 PPh *abij copulate
24761 *abijay sling over the shoulder 15 PPh *abijay sling over the shoulder
Note: Also Ilokano abáday ‘carry something in a band slung over the shoulder’, Ilokano abíday ‘throw a blanket over the shoulder’, Kalamian Tagbanwa kablay ‘carry suspended from shoulder diagonally’, Maranao abelai ‘hang over shoulder, sling across shoulder’, Maranao ambelai ‘put hand around shoulder’.
33651 *abilus a plant: Acalypha spp. 12394 PPh *abilus a plant: Acalypha spp.
24763 *abit climb 17 PWMP *abit₁ climb
Note: Possibly a chance resemblance. Alternatively, the forms cited here may be compared with Amis safit ‘cloth wrapped around the feet to help climb betel nut tree’, and assigned to PAn *Sabit ‘long cloth wrapped around body and used for carrying’ through this semantic connection.
24764 *abu abu fish sp. 18 PWMP *abu abu fish sp.
Note: Also Bikol ábo ‘a fish, the grouper: Epinephelus undulosus’, Malay ikan ambu-ambu ‘bonito fish: Thynnus tunnina’, Kamarian apu ‘fish sp.’. Banjarese habu ‘young of the murrel (very small, like a fleck of ash): Ophiocephalus striatus)’ evidently reflects *qabu ‘ash’, and the same may be true of the present comparison.
24765 19 33727 *abúluy assistance given to someone in need 12482 PPh *abúluy assistance given to someone in need
Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.
30588 7983 Note: With root *-bun ‘heap, pile; collect, assemble’. Possibly a convergent innovation.
24766 *abuqaŋ beetle 20 PMP *abuqaŋ beetle
Note: Also Paiwan qaquŋ ‘soldier beetle’, Tagalog uwáŋ, uʔáŋ ‘big beetle, usually infesting coconut trees’, Bikol úʔaŋ ‘large, black, horned coconut beetle, living in and boring into palm trees’. Tae' ambo(y)oŋ ‘kind of beetle which emerges from felled sugar palms, and which develops from the white sago worm which lives on the pith of the sugar palm’ appears to be distinct.
24767 *abuR dust 21 PWMP *abuR dust [disjunct: *qabug]
Note: Also Kankanaey abúd ‘fine sand, fine mud’.
28822 6053 Note: Also Tagalog abóy ‘something or someone being driven about; act of driving away’ (probably an early Kapampangan loan). The similarity of Yamdena yabur ‘flee, run away’ to the forms cited above is assumed to be a product of chance.
24768 *abus ash 22 PMP *abus ash [doublet: *qabu₁]
24769 23 Note: Also Tetun abut ‘root’. With root *-buC ‘to weed, pluck, pull out’.
33993 *abut₂ buttocks 12838 PWMP *abut₂ buttocks
Note: With root *-but₁ ‘buttocks; bottom’.
33406 *abuyu to boil sugarcane to make sugarcane wine 12093 PPh *abuyu to boil sugarcane to make sugarcane wine
Note: Possibly borrowed from languages of northern Luzon (cf. Yami, Itbayaten onas ‘sugarcane’, which is almost certainly a borrowing of Ilokano unás, since nearly all other Philippine languages reflect PAn *tebuS in this meaning). However, this word is not found in any Ilokano source available to me.
24774 69 Note: Also Bintulu manuk atəŋ ‘tame pigeon, domestic pigeon’, Mongondow asa-asaŋ ‘nocturnal bird sp.’. Possibly a product of borrowing, although it is noteworthy that this form is unattested in Malay (unless in the form acaŋ ‘messenger, errand-boy’, from the use of domestic pigeons to send messages).
24771 *aCab a cover 25 PAN *aCab a cover
12081 PMP *atab a cover
Note: Also Puyuma (Tamalakaw) ʔeTav ‘to cover’.
24772 26 27 28 29 30 31 PWMP *maŋ-atas lift or raise up
32 Note: Also Tboli tahaʔ ‘long, tall’, Simalur atas, aʔtaiʔ/ ‘high’, Selaru atat ‘high’, Gilbertese eta ‘top, upper, heavens (as opposed to the earth), the shore as opposed to the sea, the land; high’; eta-eta ‘very high’; i-eta above, ashore, over’. Although non-Formosan witnesses point consistently to *atas (with metathesis of the first vowel and consonant in PPh) the reconstruction of a PAn etymon is more problematic. Tsuchida (1983) identifies the Puyuma stem as -Tas, since e.g. i-Tas ‘up, above’ lacks an initial stem vowel. If this analysis is adopted, however, comparison of the Formosan and extra-Formosan material becomes difficult.
To explain the missing initial vowel in Puyuma -Tas we might posit a stem *Caqas which is prefixed both in Puyuma (Tamalakaw) a-Tas ‘high’, and in all MP languages. This hypothesis offers the minor advantage of deriving the Central Philippine forms without metathesis, but creates two more serious problems: 1) it forces us to assume an irregular loss of -H- with contraction of the resulting vowel sequence in Puyuma, and 2) it forces us to assume that all non-Formosan reflexes outside the central Philippines contain an independently reconstructible prefix or particle (presumably *qa ‘locative particle’) which has become fossilized. While this analysis may work for most reflexes in MP languages, it is not clear that the initial vowel in Puyuma (Tamalakaw) a-Tas ‘high’ has any connection with *Sa; the same must be said for the morphologically corresponding but probably convergent form Cebuano ha-taʔás ‘very long; high’. As a compromise, then, I assume that Puyuma (Tamalakaw) -Tas shows an irregular loss of the first syllable vowel. Finally, Ross (1988:276) reconstructs POc *qatas ‘summit, top’, but provides no supporting evidence for the initial consonant.
24773 *aCay death 33 PAN *aCay death
34 PMP *atay death
35 PAN *ka-aCay kill (?)
36 PAN *ka-aCay-an lose someone through death (?)
37 PAN *ma-aCay die; dead; eclipse of sun or moon
38 PMP *m-atay die; dead; sick; tired (of); faint, lose consciousness; eclipse; new moon; extinguished; blocked (path); paralyzed; numb, asleep (limbs); die down (wind); waterless (springs, rivers); dry up (plants); beaten (in a game); fixed (price); terminate a matter, reach an agreement; disaster; intensive, superlative; desire intensely, be deeply in love
39 40 41 POC *mate-a kill
42 PMP *m-atay-an lose someone through death
43 POC *mate-an death
44 POC *mate-qaŋa death
45 POC *mate-na dead
46 PMP *pa(ka)-m-atay kill; commit suicide (?)
47 POC *paka-mate kill; commit suicide
48 POC *paka-mate-ia kill
49 PWMP *paŋ-m-atay means of killing (?)
50 PWMP *ka-m-atay (gloss uncertain)
51 PWMP *ka-m-atay-an be affected by a death
52 PWMP *m-atay anak spirit dangerous to children
53 PWMP *m-atay uRat paralyzed
54 PWMP *na-atay dead
55 PAN *pa-aCay kill
7159 PMP *p-atay kill
6436 PWMP *ka-p-atay (gloss uncertain)
56 PWMP *ka-p-atay-an end or death of something (?)
57 PWMP *ka-p-atay-en death
58 PWMP *p<in>atay was killed
59 60 PAN *pa-p-aCay kill
61 PMP *pa-p-atay kill
62 PWMP *pa-p-atay-an kill
63 PMP *in-atay dead
64 PAN *m<in>aCay burial ground (?)
65 POC *m<in>ate one who has died, dead person
66 67 POC *ma-mate (gloss uncertain)
68 PMP *m-atay m-atay die in throngs; be on the verge of death
Note: Also Bontok etéy ‘death’, pátay ‘any sacrifice performed on behalf of the village’, Aklanon ka-mátay-on ‘death’, Manggarai mate ‘the late, the deceased’, Ngadha mate ‘die; dead; the deceased; kill, slay’, Lamaholot maté-n ‘already dead, not moving any more’, Fordata matta ‘die; dead; go out (fire, light)’, Kowiai/Koiwai matata ‘corpse’, Marshallese mij ‘dead; numb; death’, Niue mase ‘die’. Since all of the forms that Dempwolff compared contain a reflex either of *p- or of *m-, he reconstructed both *patay and *matay ‘die, dead’. However, rather than list these reconstructions with the relevant supporting evidence separately, as was his practice with doublets, he posited paired etyma *patay, *matay at the head of a single mixed comparison, with an empty cross-reference to *matay. The explanation for this treatment is given in Dempwolff (1934-38:sect. 47e), where it is suggested that *matay is derived from *patay by nasal substitution, but is sufficiently widespread (being found in ‘Indonesian’, ‘Melanesian’ and Polynesian languages) to require a separate reconstruction. This was perhaps the closest Dempwolff came to the reconstruction of morphology.
The evidence now available shows that the unaffixed PAn base in question was *aCay. Dempwolff's *patay and *matay can most convincingly be derived from *pa-aCay ‘kill’ (with causative *pa-) and *ma-aCay ‘dead’ (with stative *ma-). That the base began with a vowel rather than *q- is clear from such reflexes as Bunun atađ ‘kill’, Kalamian Tagbanwa patay ‘dead’, Moken matay ‘die; dead’, Muna mate ‘die; dead’, Lou mat ‘die; dead’, and Tongan mate ‘die; dead’. The merger of *q- and zero in many attested languages would have led to homophony between reflexes of PAn *aCay ‘death’ and *qaCay ‘liver’, both of which figured in numerous expressions relating to the emotions. Possibly to avoid such potentially awkward homophony the unaffixed base was lost in the great majority of languages, leaving reflexes of *pa-aCay and *ma-aCay as effective secondary base forms for further morphological elaboration. Thus, next to PAn *pa-aCay and PMP *pa-atay ‘kill’ there is a priori evidence for e.g. PMP *pa(ka)-m-atay ‘kill’ and PWMP *ka-m-atay-an ‘affected by a death’, where the outer affixation evidently was added to an already prefixed base.
The alternative hypothesis, that forms such as Bunun atađ ‘kill’, Casiguran Dumagat atë ‘die; dead; death’ or Kelabit ate are products of analogical back-formation from a base *paCay or *maCay is more difficult to maintain in view of the fairly clear (though by no means universal) association of reflexes of the former with the causative ‘kill’ and of reflexes of the latter with the stative ‘dead’. Partly by analogy with *ma-qudip ‘living, alive’, I have attributed all reflexes that Dempwolff would have assigned to *matay to PAn *ma-aCay, PMP *ma-atay, PCEMP *matay, POc *mate. It is possible that these forms actually represent a conflation of *ma-aCay ‘dead’ (stative) and *um-aCay ‘die’ (active), since the initial vowel in reflexes of *in-atay generally disappeared even though it was retained in most other forms, and we would expect a parallel treatment of the initial vowel of *um-atay. Nonetheless, pairs such as Kelabit mate ‘die; dead’, in-ate ‘killed’ suggest that the former does contain a reflex of *ma- rather than *um-. The same apparently must be assumed in PMP *m-in-atay ‘person who has died, corpse’ (= *m-in-a-atay, with contraction of the sequence of like vowels), despite the fact that the co-occurrence of *ma- ‘stative’ and *-in- ‘perfective’ is otherwise rare.
Because of occasional ambiguities in the morphology it is possible that I have posited some morphologically complex forms of *aCay and its reflexes which are in reality products of convergent innovation. Examples include *m-atay-an ‘lose someone through death’, *paŋ-m-atay ‘means of killing(?)’, *ka-p-atay-an ‘end of death of something(?)’ and *ka-p-atay-en ‘death(?)’. As implied in passing above, it appears likely that the prefix of PAn *ma-aCay was reinterpreted as part of the stem in PCEMP *matay. The only known counterevidence to this claim is Bimanese h-ade ‘kill, extinguish a fire’ and Soboyo n-ate ‘2sg, 3sg and 3pl form of m-ate ‘die’. Finally, although Dempwolff reconstructed both *patay and *matay with the meaning ‘die, dead’ it is clear from the data assembled here that by at least PMP times a far richer complex of meanings was associated with *atay, whether alone, affixed, or in combination with various other free morphemes. These meanings included not only ‘death’, ‘dead’, ‘die’, ‘kill’, and ‘corpse’ but also the following more figurative senses:
To these we can add for PWMP:
and for PCEMP
For convenience I have associated all of these meanings with PMP *ma-atay. It is, moreover, likely that some form of *aCay was found in a PMP expression meaning ‘commit suicide’ (Ilokano, Aklanon, Cebuano, Kiput, Sasak, Banggai, Rennellese), and in a PWMP expression meaning ‘die in childbirth’ (Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, Sasak, Bare'e, Tae'). The latter may have been the expression I have reconstructed here as *m-atay anak, although borrowing from Malay (e.g. Tagalog páti-anak) has complicated the issue. By contrast, the common practice of using a reflex of *aCay to refer to machinery which has stopped moving (stopped watch or clock, dead engine, etc.) clearly is convergent. Needless to say, many of these usages express universal tendencies.
24775 70 PWMP *adaduq long (of objects) [doublet: *anaduq]
Note: Also Saisiyat ʔinaroʔ ‘long (objects)’, Paiwan laḍuq ‘be long (spatially)’, Chamorro anakkoʔ ‘long’.
24776 *adamay a plant: Pipturus argenteus 71 PMP *adamay a plant: Pipturus argenteus
Note: Sundanese haramay ‘an urticacea: Boehmeria nivea’ may also be cognate. If so, *adamay must be changed to *qadamay. The essence of this comparison appears in Verheijen (1984).
30665 *adani near 8183 PMP *adani near [doublet: *daŋi]
Note: Also Seediq dalex ‘near (in space or time)’, Ilokano addaní ‘close intervals (of events)’, Gaddang araʔni, Narum sanæʔ, Bintulu janiʔ ‘near’.
29951 6632 6633 PAN *um-adaS bring
Note: Although Bunun madas appears to be an affixed form of a base /adas/ Jeng (1972) gives the base as /madas/ because of affixed forms like /madas-in/. It is unclear whether the same is true of Saisiyat.
32690 *adayúq far 11098 PPh *adayúq far
11099 PPh *ma-adayuq far, far away, far off, distant
11100 PPh *d<um>ayuq to distance oneself, move far off
Note: This comparison was first noted by Zorc (1986:161). Despite the general phonetic similarity of the forms, *dayuq appears to be a clear replacement innovation for PMP *zauq ‘far’.
30342 7326 PAN *adi no, not [disjunct: *hadiq]
Note: Also Itbayaten alih ‘not, none’. All Philippine reflexes that are assigned to *adi could just as easily be assigned to *hadiq, but this is not true of Seediq adi, which forces the reconstruction of a disjunct.
24779 *adu compete, confront in a contest 75 PWMP *adu compete, confront in a contest
76 PWMP *maŋ-adu compete, confront in a contest
Note: Also Tagalog áro ‘prodding test of strength of textiles’, Javanese aḍu ‘sue, bring legal action against’, Mongondow adu ‘accusation, charge’ (Malay loan). Many of the forms cited here probably are Malay loans, and the antiquity of the etymon is thus very much in doubt.
24778 *aduq exclamation of pain, distress, etc. 73 PMP *aduq exclamation of pain, distress, etc.
74 PWMP *maŋ-aduq to exclaim in pain, distress, etc.
Note: Also Tagalog aróy ‘pleased or complimentary exclamation’, Hanunóo adúg ‘ow! ouch! An exclamation of sudden pain similar to adíg’, Aklanon adóy ‘oh darn! (expression of frustration)’, Tiruray adoy ‘exclamation of pain’, Old Javanese aḍu, aḍū ‘an exclamation of emotion’, Tae' alu ‘exclamation of lamentation, regret, or disappointment’, Kei adō ‘exclamation of surprise or compassion’.
30122 6855 PWMP *a(n)duq long, of objects
Note: Apparently a syncopated form of either *adaduq or *anaduq, with possible contamination from *Sadu ‘much, many’.
33511 12239 33512 12240 12241 24780 77 Note: Dempwolff (1934-38) also included Tagalog ágam-ágam ‘retrospection; misgiving, foreboding’, but the cognation of this form is very doubtful. Although PWMP *agam is only weakly supported it is difficult to explain the known reflexes through an appeal to borrowing, since a reflex has not been reported in Malay.
32866 *a(ŋ)gap think carefully about, consider 11324 PWMP *a(ŋ)gap think carefully about, consider
Note: Chaer (1976) gives Jakarta Malay aŋgep ‘judge, estimate, calculate, think out’, which raises questions about the cognation of the Aklanon form.
30596 7997 PWMP *agas a tree: Aporosa spp.
24781 78 Note: With root *-gem ‘grasp, grip’. Hiligaynon águm ‘obtain, attain, achieve, possess’ and related forms in other Philippine languages are assumed to derive from *agem ‘use, get use from’ (Blust 1980).
24782 79 30040 *agem₃ overcast 6739 PWMP *agem₃ overcast
33480 *ágiw soot 12201 PPh *ágiw soot
Note: Also Itbayaten ariw ‘soot’, which suggests a different medial consonant that cannot presently be reconstructed. Possibly a Tagalog loan in Ilokano.
24783 80 Note: Also Kambera àŋu ‘and, with’.
33407 *águm greedy; take for oneself 12094 PPh *águm to appropriate for oneself
12095 PPh *agum-an defend, protect one’s interests
33704 *agúm to associate with someone 12455 PPh *agúm to associate with someone
24785 *ai₁ anaphoric or relative particle: there, previously mentioned place 82 POC *ai₁ anaphoric or relative particle: there, previously mentioned place
Note: Also Lau ʔai ‘which (relative pronoun)’, Rotuman e ‘adverb, therein, therefrom, because of it, etc. Though generally a quasi-suffix, it is used occasionally in a more independent position’. There is a history of discussion of this form in the literature, with the following milestones:
(1) Pawley (1972:77) reconstructed POc *(q)i-ai ‘previously mentioned place; there, thereat’, adding that this form is ‘Probably analyzable into relational preposition ... and *ai ‘there, previously mentioned place";
(2) Chapin (1974) provided an extensive discussion of PPn *ai,
(3) Pawley (1978:37) showed that many of the Austronesian languages of New Guinea reflect *-iai ‘a postposition marking locative or general relation’, and noted that ‘Evidently, in New Guinea Oceanic the locative pronoun *ai was reanalyzed as a post-nominal particle and its function was generalised to that of a locative case marker. Further study is needed to determine the precise distribution of this putative innovation’; (4) most recently Ross (1988:347ff) has documented the distribution of *-iai among most languages of the Papuan Tip cluster, several branches of the North New Guinea cluster, and in Torau and Mono-Alu of the Meso-Melanesian cluster. He argues that its use as a postposition in the latter two languages probably is historically independent from the similar usage in the Austronesian languages of New Guinea, and characterized its ‘most usual function in Oceanic languages’ as that of an ‘oblique proform’.
24786 *ai₂ interjection, exclamation of surprise, incredulity, etc. 83 PAN *ai₂ interjection, exclamation of surprise, incredulity, etc.
Note: Also Itbayaten ayyih ‘exclamation of satisfaction’, Cebuano aháy ‘exclamation expressing utter tiredness or frustration’, Iban aih ‘interjection of annoyance, mockery, etc.’, Malay ahi ‘interjection to invite attention’, Nias hai-hai ‘interjection: oh! oh!, Manggarai aé ‘exclamation’, Nggela ae ‘exclamation of surprise, or deprecatory’.
30543 *ai₃ come 7828 PAN *ai₃ come [doublet: *ari, *aRi]
7829 PAN *um-ai to come [doublet: *um-ari, '(ari', *um-aRi 'aRi)']
7830 POC *mai come; toward the speaker
Note: Also Kajeli mae ‘to come’, Nauna ko me-h ‘Come here! (= ‘you come’)’, Roviana mae ‘come; used frequently in conjunction with other words, but always implies motion towards speaker’. Dempwolff reconstructed only *maRi ‘hither’, and although he noted that Sa'a mäi showed an unexplained loss of the medial consonant under his interpretation, he regarded the Fijian and Polynesian forms as regular developments. However, nearly all reflexes of this form in Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages reflect *um-ai, suggesting that even where they are ambiguous for *um-ai or *um-aRi they probably reflect the first variant. It is further noteworthy that both Ibaloy ali (< *aRi) and Toqabaqita mai (< *um-ai) signal distance in time from the present.
24787 *ajan name 84 PMP *ajan name [doublet: *najan, *ŋajan]
12087 POC *acan name
85 PMP *pa(ka)-ajan to name, give a name to
Note: Also Samal oon ‘name’, Jarai anan ‘name’, Sasak ara ‘name’, Sangir areŋ ‘name’, Bantik adeŋ ‘name’, Buginese aseŋ ‘name’, Makassarese areŋ ‘name’, Numbami ase ‘name’. Kayan (Uma Juman) ara appears to have lost the final nasal through analogical back-formation by reinterpretation of -n as ‘3sg. possessor’ (cp. mata-n ‘his/her eye’). The same presumably is of true of Ngaju Dayak, Sasak ara, although the facts in these cases are less well known.
Finally, the use of the word for ‘name’ as an interrogative marker, either ‘who?’ (extension of its use as a marker of personal names), or ‘what?’ (extension of its use as a marker of common names) has a thin but widespread distribution in Austronesian languages, including the northern and southern Philippines, New Ireland, the Solomon Islands and portions of Micronesia. I assume that these usages are convergent developments.
29939 6619 24788 *ajiq exclamation of pain or surprise 86 PWMP *ajiq exclamation of pain or surprise
Note: Also Tiruray adey ‘exclamation of pain’, Malay adoh, aduh ‘oh! as an interjection of grief or pain’. Given their expressive character some or all of these items could be products of convergence.
31600 9739 PWMP *aka elder sibling [doublet: *kaka₂]
9740 PWMP *aka-ŋ elder sibling (vocative)
9741 PWMP *aka-q elder sibling (vocative)
24789 87 Note: Also Hanunóo akhák ‘expectoration of catarrhal phlegm’, Cebuano akaʔak ‘make a crackling sound, loud creaking sound’. With root *-kak₁ ‘cackle, laugh loudly’.
31103 *akaŋ take a long step, step over something 9077 PWMP *akaŋ take a long step, step over something [disjunct: *sakaŋ]
Note: Kankanaey akaŋ-káŋ is assumed to show rightward reduplication. With root *-kaŋ₁ ‘spread apart, as the legs’.
24790 *akaR root 88 PMP *akaR root [disjunct: *wakaR]
Note: Also Sasak akah ‘root’.
30029 *ake tree sp. 6725 POC *ake tree sp.
Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.
30577 7960 33968 *aken₂ preposition, on, upon; applicative marker 12808 PWMP *aken₂ preposition, on, upon; applicative marker
24791 89 Note: Iban kerah-kerah was earlier assigned to *keraq ‘chattering of monkeys’ (Blust 1970: no. 207).
29889 *aki grandfather 6552 PAN *aki grandfather, ancestor [doublet: *baki]
Note: Thanks to Jason Lobel for pointing out the reflexes of this form in Sabah and northern Sulawesi.
Also Yami Ivatan akay, Isneg akáy, Agta (Dupaningan) kakay ‘grandfather’. With unexplained postconsonantal glottal stop in Tsou. Since a non-problematic reflex of *aki is not available in at least two primary branches of Austronesian this might be considered a ‘near comparison’. However, since it is found next to the doublet *baki, which can be reconstructed without issues it is posited here.
24965 *a(ŋ)kit bite 417 PMP *a(ŋ)kit bite
418 33863 *akot to point out, show, teach 12681 POC *akot to point out, show, teach
Note: Dempwolff (1938) assigned the Tongan and Samoan forms cited here to *a(ŋ)ken ‘to approriate to oneself; mine’.
24792 *aku 1sg nominative; I 90 PAN *aku 1sg nominative; I
11661 91 PWMP *aku-en acknowledge; receive, accept
92 PAN *k-aku 1sg oblique: to me, for me
93 94 12088 95 Note: Also Nias yaʔo ‘I’, Ngadha dzao ‘I’, Sika ʔaʔu ‘I’, Tetun haʔu ‘I, me’, Yapese gaeg ‘I, me’, Mussau agi ‘I’, Vitu Gau ‘I, me’, Wogeo va ‘I’, Roviana rau ‘I, me’, Rotuman goua ‘I, me’, Tongan ou ‘I, me’. Many reflexes of *aku contain a fossilized person marker *i (cf. Blust 1977). In some Oceanic languages it is difficult to determine whether an initial high front glide in this form is the reflex of *i, or the epenthetic onset that was commonly added to forms that began with *a (Blust 1990:10ff).
There are several additional problems associated with the morphology of this entry, not including the non-morphologically derived forms *-ku and *ak, which are treated as separate entries.
First, independent evidence for a directional particle *ki suggests that *k-aku derives ultimately from *ki aku, although direct evidence for this collocation still is lacking.
Second, widespread reflexes of *n-aku or *ñ-aku (presumably < *ni aku) suggest that the long-form pronoun *aku followed the agent/possessor marker *ni in certain constructions, even though normally only the short-form pronouns occurred in this environment (Blust 1977:5).
Third, although it is necessary to reconstruct a POc variant *ŋau the source of the initial consonant, and the syntactic distinctions between *ŋau and other forms of the 1sg. personal pronoun remain unclear (cf. Pawley 1972:61, where ‘PEOc’ *(i) nau is glossed ‘1sg. focal’, *au and *nau as ‘1sg. object’, *(ŋ)ku and *na(u) as ‘1sg. subject’, and *-ŋku as ‘1sg. possessive’, although *ŋau does not appear among the languages considered, and hence is not considered).
Fourth, so many CMP and OC languages show an irregular loss of *k in *aku that it is simplest to posit a change *aku > *au in their immediate common ancestor (PCEMP), which thus had variants *aku, *au. Although this is a distinction of form which evidently had no connection with morphology, we still must ask whether there could have been a syntactic distinction between *aku and *au in PCEMP or any of its descendants.
Finally, although affixed forms of *aku meaning ‘admit, confess, acknowledge’ and the like apparently must reconstructed, many of the known reflexes probably are due to borrowing (e.g. Tagalog paŋ-ákoʔ ‘promise’, Javanese peŋaku ‘confession, acknowledgement, verification’), Manggarai aku, Kambera maŋaku ‘admit, confess’.
24796 *ala take, get, fetch, obtain; marry 118 PAN *ala take, get, fetch, obtain; marry [disjunct: *alaq₁]
7786 PAN *ma-ala be fetched, be taken
7787 PAN *um-ala to fetch, get, take
7768 33408 12096 24889 319 PPh *alagád to wait [disjunct: *asu₃]
33010 *alagaq kind of large red tree ant with bad bite 11496 PWMP *alagaq kind of large red tree ant with bad bite
Note: Also Bontok allága ‘kind of large ant’, Ifugaw (Batad) allāga ‘large stinging red tree ant’, Mongondow lolagaɁ ‘kind of large red tree ant’.
32112 *alali halibut, sole, flounder 10359 PMP *alali halibut, sole, flounder
Note: Osmond (2011:118) has proposed that this reconstruction be raised to PCEMP *alali ‘halibut, flounder’, based on what she cites as ‘Ambon’ (al)ali ‘halibut, flounder’. However, Ambon is an island, not a language, and because she provides no source her citation of this
form outside the Oceanic group cannot be traced. The Polynesian forms are assumed to have reduced by haplology.
33726 *alaŋ doubt; hesitation 12479 PPh *alaŋ doubt; hesitation
12480 PPh *alaŋ-án to hesitate; to doubt
12481 PPh *alaŋ-alaŋ₂ to hesitate; to doubt
Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat alaŋan-in ‘to doubt, to be uncertain, to be vague, to be hesitant, to be undecided’ (< Tagalog). Although reflexes of *alaŋ-án appear to be monomorphemic in all known witnesses, the likelihood that this word contains a suffix is suggested by evidence for *alaŋ-alaŋ in the same meaning. However, this suffix must have been fossilized relatively early for languages like Tagalog to then add a reflex of *-en after it. Hanunóo aláŋ ‘doubt’ stands alone as a morphologically simple disyllable, but must represent the base in PPh.
30875 *alaŋ-alaŋ insufficient, half-heartedly 8700 PWMP *alaŋ-alaŋ₁ insufficient, half-heartedly
Note: Also Kayan alaŋ-alaŋ ‘half-heartedly; carelessly’ (< Malay). Possibly a Malay loan distribution, although in some cases this appears unlikely.
24793 96 PAN *alap fetch, get, take [doublet: *ala, *alaq]
97 PWMP *ka-alap fetched, gotten, taken
98 PWMP *ka-alap-an fetched, gotten, taken
99 100 PPh *maka-alap able to fetch, get, take, reach
101 PWMP *maŋ-alap fetch, get, take
102 PWMP *paŋ-alap means or instrument for catching
103 PWMP *paŋ-alap-an place where something is fetched
104 PAN *in-alap that which has been taken; was taken by
105 PWMP *um-alap fetch, get, take
106 PWMP *alap-an what is taken (?)
107 PWMP *alap-en fetch, get, take
Note: Also Itawis álak ‘take’, Eddystone/Mandegusu alavi ‘marry’, Nggela alavi ‘get, take’. The reduplicated forms of *alap in Itbayaten and Old Javanese are assumed to be independent developments. This form and its doublet *alaq both appear to have covered the semantic range represented by the common English verbs ‘get’ and ‘take’, and there is some evidence that it could be used at least in certain contexts in the sense of ‘to bring’. In addition reflexes of both variants contain recurrent references to 1. one's ‘catch’ in hunting or fishing (Paiwan, Itbayaten, Sangir, Tongan), 2. the harvesting of fruit or grain (= one's ‘catch’ in gathering; Malay, Balinese), and 3. to marriage, with particular reference to a man ‘taking’ a woman to wife (Paiwan, Toba Batak, Tongan, perhaps Eddystone/Mandegusu for *alap, Banggai, Uma, Wolio, Komodo, Wetan for *alaq).
24794 *alaq₁ fetch, get, take; marry 108 PAN *alaq₁ fetch, get, take [doublet: *ala, *alap]
110 111 PWMP *maŋ-alaq₁ fetch, get, take
112 PWMP *paŋ-alaq what is used for getting something
113 114 Note: Although the basic sense of this form appears to have been ‘to fetch, get, take’, its extended meanings evidently included the notion of ‘taking’ a bride, as reflected in the Wolio, Komodo and Wetan glosses, and the similar semantics in various reflexes of the doublet *alap. In this connection the gloss ‘capture’ is significant in view of the many 19th century anthropological discussions of ‘marriage by capture’.
24795 *alaq₂ defeat 115 PWMP *alaq₂ defeat
116 PWMP *ka-alaq defeated
117 PWMP *maŋ-alaq₂ defeat, overcome
Note: Also Asilulu ala ‘overcome, defeat; outsmart’ (probably a loan from Malay (Ambon)). Kadazan Dusun ka-aha may reflect *maka-alaq). Said (1977) cites a number of apparently disparate forms under ala, some of which probably are ala and others alaʔ. I assume that Buginese pala does not end with a glottal stop, although no explicit indication of the contrast between -ʔ and zero is given in his orthography.
24797 *alaq₃ resemble 119 PWMP *alaq₃ resemble
30107 *alawid far 6836 PWMP *alawid far
32679 *álem a shrub or tree: Melanolepis multiglandulosa 11080 PPh *álem a shrub or tree: Melanolepis multiglandulosa
33022 11511 Note: With root *-lem₁ ‘dark’.
33264 11787 Note: With root *-kas₃ ‘swift, agile; energetic’.
33173 *alílaq to care for someone, wait on 11683 PPh *alílaq to care for someone, wait on
Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.
30262 *alim forget 7144 PAN *alim forget
Note: Kavalan marim is assumed to contain a prefix that is either fossilized, or attached to a base that was not elicited by Li and Tsuchida (2006).
24799 *alinaw shadow 122 PPh *alinaw shadow [doublet: *qaninu, etc.]
Note: Also SUBC dlinaw ‘image’, Kayan hiŋau ‘shade’.
24800 123 Note: Dempwolff (1934-38) included Tagalog alí ‘dominating; influence; succession; to dominate, influence’, and Fijian yali ‘lost, absent, missing’ in this comparison, but neither form is semantically close to the set given here. Moreover, although he cites Tagalog aliʔ ‘Nachfolger with a final glottal stop his source (Laktaw 1914) gives ali. In addition, Tsuchida (1976:172) compares Kanakanabu taku-aíʔi ‘change one's direction, veer’, a resemblance which I believe can most plausibly be attributed to chance. The distribution of the residual cognate set leaves open the possibility that *aliq was a relatively late innovation in western Indonesia.
24801 *aliten firebrand; unconsumed wood in a fire; charred wood 124 PWMP *aliten firebrand; unconsumed wood in a fire; charred wood [doublet: *aluten]
Note: Also Mota lito ‘firewood’.
33943 12781 24802 125 PWMP *alub put in or over a fire
30877 8702 Note: Also Ngaju Dayak arut ‘boat made by joining different planks (as opposed to jukuŋ, a single-log dugout)’, h-arut ‘have a boat, travel in a boat’ (expected **alut). Probably a canoe used on interior rivers rather than a boat that could be used at sea. As such, it lacked outriggers, and was no doubt built for sturdiness and agility in navigating river rapids.
24803 126 12089 127 9621 Note: Also Isneg pilóxa ‘the oars and paddles of a canoe’. Consonant-initial forms are assumed to contain the (fossilized) causative prefix *pa-. Some of the Oceanic members of this comparison were first brought to my attention by Ross Clark.
30291 *alujah ant sp. 7226 PAN *alujah ant sp.
32998 11483 24805 129 Note: Also Tiruray galuŋ ‘shade oneself; in the shade’, Tboli keluŋ ‘shade’, Mongondow oliuŋ ‘shadow’, Tolai malur ‘shade’.
30530 *aluten burning brand; charred or smoldering wood 7793 PMP *aluten burning brand; charred or smoldering wood [doublet: *aliten]
12090 POC *aluton firewood
Note: Bisaya luton ‘firewood’ was erroneously glossed ‘burning brand’ in Blust (1980). This comparison is complicated by the occurrence of apparent cognates in some of the non-Austronesian languages of Halmahera, as with 24806 *amak mat 130 PWMP *amak mat [doublet: *lamak] [disjunct: *hamak]
33481 12202 24810 *amaŋ amaŋ dare to do something 152 PWMP *amaŋ amaŋ dare to do something
24807 131 132 PWMP *amaq-an eating place (?)
24808 *amaRa tree sp. 133 PWMP *amaRa tree sp.
33323 *amat continuous, unceasing 11861 PWMP *amat continuous, unceasing
Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.
32054 *amatu double-headed parrotfish 10288 POC *amatu double-headed parrotfish [disjunct: *kamatu]
Note: A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011:96-97).
24809 *amax father 134 PAN *amax father
135 PAN *da-amax father
136 PAN *maR-amax to be father and child
137 PAN *si amax father (ref.)
138 PAN *ta-amax father (ref.)
139 PMP *t-amax father
140 PWMP *ka-ama-en fatherhood
141 PWMP *kam-ama-an father's brother
142 PMP *pa(ka)-amax treat like a father
143 PWMP *paR-ama-en relationship of father and child
144 PWMP *paRi-amax relationship of father and children
145 POC *paRi-tama relationship of father and children
146 PWMP *ama-an (gloss uncertain)
147 PWMP *ama-en uncle
148 PMP *amá-ŋ father (voc.)
149 PMP *ama-q father (voc.)
150 PMP *ama-i father (voc.)
151 PWMP *ama ama stepfather
Note: Also Paiwan kama ‘father’, Mongondow kog-amaʔ ‘have a father’, Nias maŋ-ama ‘acknowledge as a father, call father’, Bikol pakó-amaʔ-ón ‘uncle’, Cebuano paŋ-ama ‘to go to someone as if he were one's father to ask for help’, Mongondow poku-amaʔ-an ‘uncle’, Uma tuama ‘father’, Ma'anyan amah ‘father Manggarai ema ‘father’, Li'o ema ‘father’, Sika ʔama ‘father’.
24811 153 PMP *ambak stamp or smack against
Note: Possibly a product of chance. With root *-bak₂ ‘sound of a heavy smack’.
33298 11833 Note: Also Iban mawaŋ ‘wild mango, ‘horse mango’, Mangifera kemanga or M. caesia Jack’.
24812 154 PWMP *ambay wave back and forth
Note: Also Agutaynen lambay ‘to summon a person to come near by waving the hand downward in
a large gesture’, Tboli keway ‘up and down movement, as the motion of a bamboo-suspended cradle’. Dempwolff (1934-38) included Ngaju Dayak awei ‘temporary wall (using only loose leaves, etc.)’, but a connection appears difficult to justify. The comparison offered here is itself problematic, since Totoli kambe ‘beckon with the hand’ suggests that Lauje ambe (which regularly loses *k) may not reflect *ambay.
24813 155 PWMP *amben belly strap [doublet: *ambet]
Note: Possibly a Javanese loan in the SSul languages.
24814 *ambet strap; something wrapped around 156 PWMP *ambet strap; something wrapped around [doublet: *amben]
Note: Also Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong) abet ‘wear a sarong without undergarment’, Karo Batak abit ‘the long cloth that is fastened under the armpits by women’.
24815 157 PWMP *ambiq extension to house [doublet: *surambiq, *surambi]
Note: This word apparently meant ‘gallery, veranda’. It is unclear what implications *ambiq has for inferences about the early Austronesian house. The only type of residential structure in use by Austronesian-speaking peoples today which regularly has a veranda is the communal longhouse, found widely over central and northern Borneo. Various considerations, however, suggest that the longhouse is a relatively late development. All that can safely be inferred on present knowledge is that some type of veranda-like extension was sometimes constructed on houses that appear to have normally lacked them. The Sundanese, Balinese and Sasak forms are assumed to reflect *ambiq-an.
24816 158 PMP *ambit seize with the hands
159 160 PWMP *maŋ-ambit take with the hands
161 PWMP *maR-ambit take with the hands
Note: Also Tiruray abit ‘beckon, wave someone to come by moving the palm of the hand down and towards the body’, Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong) abit ‘plaited rattan carrying strap’, Mongondow abito ‘carrying basket’. With root *-bit₁ ‘hook, clasp; grasp with fingers’.
24817 162 PWMP *ambun dew, mist, fog [doublet: *embun, *hapun]
Note: Also Tetun ai abu ‘fog’.
24819 164 PWMP *ambuŋ proud, haughty [doublet: *hambúg]
Note: Also Malay somboŋ ‘arrogance, self-assertion; be puffed-up with pride’, tamboŋ ‘stubborn, headstrong, arrogant’.
24818 163 PWMP *ambuq high, lofty [disjunct: *abaw]
30579 7962 12091 30580 7963 PWMP *ameq 1pl ex oblique [doublet: *amen]
Note: Also Lotud j-amiʔ ‘1pl ex oblique’. Ross proposes first person accusative pronouns with a morpheme boundary before *-en. While it is clear that this is historically accurate it can be questioned whether the morpheme boundary was still present in these forms in PAn, since the derivation of *aken from *aku, *iten from *ita and *amen from *ami require two ordered operations: 1. deletion of the final vowel of the nominative pronoun, and 2. addition of a suffix *-en of unknown origin to the shortened stem (simple addition of *-en would have predictably produced **akun, *itan and *amin). As noted in Blust (1977), and reinforced in Ross (2006:533), all known Malayo-Polynesian reflexes show an irregular change of PAn *iten to PMP *aten, presumably as a result of paradigmatic leveling (*iten : *amen > *aten : *amen).
31574 *ami 1pl. excl. nominative pronoun, we (exclusive) 9702 PAN *ami 1pl. excl. nominative pronoun, we (exclusive)
9703 PAN *i-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
9704 12092 9705 PAN *k-ami 1pl. excl. nominative pronoun, we (exclusive)
9706 PMP *m-ami 1pl. excl. genitive, our
9707 PAN *n-ami 1pl. excl. genitive, our
Note: Base forms of free pronouns are often difficult to decide. Although the most common form for the first person plural exclusive pronoun is a reflex of *kami, both Formosan and Malayo-Polynesian evidence suggests that the base was *ami, with *k-ami containing a prefix of uncertain function. Blust (1977:8-9) suggested that *kaSu ‘2sg’ next to *iSu ‘2sg.’ arose from *ka-iSu through a blend of the first syllable of *kamu ‘2pl.’ with the 2sg. base, and Ross (2006:533) has suggested that this pattern was extended to other persons and numbers; the matter remains unsettled.
A number of CEMP languages have lost *k- through regular sound change, and reflexes like ami are assigned to *k-ami on the assumption that they reflect the more common form. In assembling data for this comparison and other pronounsI have benefitted from Ross (2006:533-534) for Formosan languages, Tsuchida, Yamada and Moriguchi (1987:19-23) for Bashiic, Reid (1971) for most Philippine minor languages, Lobel (2016) for Sabahan, and Pawley (1972) for eastern Oceanic. Phonological irregularities are to be expected in pronouns, which are often compressed, or reworked without losing the inherited morphemes.
24820 *amiaŋ any plant with hairs that sting or cause itchiness 165 PWMP *amiaŋ any plant with hairs that sting or cause itchiness
24831 180 Note: Also Amis Ɂəmin ‘complete; all; every one included’, Bontok ʔamʔín ‘all’, Kankanaey amʔín, ‘all, whole, each, any, every; everyone, everything, wholly, entirely, quite, completely, thoroughly’, Ifugaw amʔín ‘all, persons or things; is often pronounced as if there were no glottal catch’, Kowiai/Koiwai lomin ‘full’.
24821 *ampal beetle sp. 166 PWMP *ampal beetle sp.
24822 *ampaw empty husk (of rice, etc.) 167 PMP *ampaw empty husk (of rice, etc.)
24823 *ampeRij type of finch, rice bird 168 PWMP *ampeRij type of finch, rice bird [doublet: *apiRit]
Note: Also Karo Batak perik ‘rice bird’, perik perik ‘birds in general’, Javanese emprit ‘a certain small hummingbird, considered an omen of danger’, Balinese perit ‘species of rice bird’, Sasak perit ‘rice bird’. This comparison is unlikely to be a product of chance, yet it can be maintained only precariously. The relationship of the Malay and Toba Batak forms is straightforward, and given the correspondence of the final consonants is not easily explained through a hypothesis of borrowing. However, the Karo Batak form, an almost certain cognate of Toba Batak amporik, has final /k/ rather than the expected final /ŋ/. Both it and the Dairi-Pakpak Batak perik ‘rice bird’ may be early loans from Toba Batak, just as the Javanese, Balinese and Sasak forms appear to be loans from Malay. The validity of *ampeRij is made more likely by the need to reconstruct a doublet, *apiRit, a form which also serves to disambiguate the intervocalic consonant as *R.
24824 *ampet stanch the flow, as of blood 169 PWMP *ampet stanch the flow, as of blood
Note: Also Tagalog ampát ‘checked, stopped, as of bleeding’ (presumpably a Kapampangan loan). With root *-pet ‘plugged, stopped, closed off’.
24825 *ampias wind-driven rain 170 PWMP *ampias wind-driven rain
Note: Also Aklanon ambi ‘get inside a window, seep in (rain)’, Malagasy tafío ‘rain blown by the wind’, tafíotra ‘rain blown by the wind’, Iban bias ‘rain storm with high wind, driving rain’, Malay bias ‘deflected (of a course). Of rain falling at an angle (hujan bias) because of wind; of a ship's course being affected by tides or currents; but not of a ship being blown off its course altogether by storms’, Malay (Jakarta) lampias ‘veer off one's course at sea’.
24826 171 Note: Possibly a convergent innovation. With root *-pik ‘pat, light slap’.
24827 *ampin roll of leaves or cloth 172 PWMP *ampin roll of leaves or cloth
24829 174 Note: Also Itbayaten hapak ‘act of scattering’. Possibly a chance resemblance.
24830 *ampun pardon, forgiveness 175 PMP *ampun pardon, forgiveness
176 PWMP *maŋ-ampun pardon, forgive
177 PWMP *maŋ-ampun-i pardon, forgive
178 PWMP *paŋ-ampun-an forgiveness (?)
179 PWMP *ampun-an pardon, forgiveness
Note: Also Tontemboan ampuŋ ‘pardon, forgiveness’, Mongondow ampuŋ ‘pardon, forgiveness’; Gorontalo aːmbuŋu ‘pardon’, Wolio ampon-i ‘forgive; pardon, forgiveness’, Manggarai ampoŋ ‘pardon, forgiveness’, Rembong ampoŋ ‘pardon, forgiveness’, Rembong (Wangka) apon ‘pardon, forgiveness’, Rotinese apon ‘pardon, forgiveness’. Two problems with this comparison are noteworthy.
First, many reflexes in Sulawesi show an irregular final velar nasal for expected /n/. For Bare'e ampuŋ-i I assume a regular development *-n- > -/ŋ/, with later loss of consonants in absolute final position. The irregular forms in Tontemboan and the GM languages may be due to borrowing from a SANG language, but this is speculative.
Second, the semantic distinction between *maŋ-ampun and *maŋ-ampun-i remains unclear. The former may have meant ‘ask for forgiveness’ and the latter ‘give forgiveness, forgive’. However, on a priori grounds one would expect that the meaning ‘ask for forgiveness’ would have been marked morphologically with the PWMP petitive prefix *maki-, reflected e.g. in Sangir maki-ampuŋ and Tontemboan meki-ampuŋ ‘ask for forgiveness’. Finally, many of the forms cited here appear to be loans from Malay, and the same would seem to be true of Tagalog ampón ‘protection in the form of adoption’, ampún-an ‘asylum; orphan asylum’. However, since it is often unclear in particular cases which forms are native and which are borrowed, it remains uncertain whether the elimination of Malay loanwords would force us to abandon the reconstruction of *ampun on the PWMP level.
31575 *amu 2pl. nominative pronoun 9708 PAN *amu 2pl. nominative pronoun
9709 PAN *k-amu 2pl. nominative, you all
9710 PMP *kamu₂ 2pl. nominative, you all
9711 PAN *n-amu 2pl. genitive, your, by you
9712 PAN *kamu-yu 2pl. nominative, you all
9713 PMP *kamu-yu 2pl. nominative and genitive; you all, your
12625 PCEMP *kamiu 2pl. nominate and genitive; you all, your
Note: Reflexes of PMP *kamu-yu probably arose from *kamu ‘2pl. + *ihu ‘2sg.), which then contracted *uy to i in some daughter languages. Saisiyat moyo remains a puzzle.
34058 *amuluŋ type of wild vine used to blacken the teeth 12912 PPh *amuluŋ type of wild vine used to blacken the teeth
Note: The hypothesized loss of the medial vowel in this form in Bikol and Hanunóo is unexplained, but the comparison is otherwise faultless.
33614 *amuma to entertain guests, look after visitors 12355 PPh *amuma to entertain guests, look after visitors
Note: Possibly a Bisayan loan in Agutaynen.
24851 *-an verbal suffix marking locative voice; nominal suffix marking location 254 PAN *-an verbal suffix marking locative voice; nominal suffix marking location
Note: *-an is one of the more important affixes that can be reconstructed for PAn and PMP. The reflexes in such languages as Atayal, Tagalog, Murut (Timugon) and Chamorro show that PAn *-an probably could co-occur with *-in- in past temporal expressions, and examples in other languages suggest that the final element in PWMP *ka- (stem) -an was identical to *-an. Reflexes of *-an are often the exclusive or principle morphological means of expressing the ‘locative focus’ in Philippine languages, and at the same time are commonly used to derive nouns of location. It is, however, perhaps an oversimplification to associate *-an exclusively with semantic properties that can be characterized in a straightforward sense as ‘locative’. To judge from its functioning reflexes in modern Formosan and Philippine languages, and from its fossilized reflexes in other languages, *-an had multiple functions (alternatively, we might recognize more than one homophonous suffix).
Thus, many of the languages of western Borneo have a form tapan ‘winnowing basket’ (active verb: napan ‘to winnow grain’) which reflects PMP *tahep ‘up and down movement of grains being winnowed’ + *-an, here receiving a more natural universal interpretation as instrumental rather than locative. Particularly interesting is *tian-an ‘pregnant’ (from *tian ‘abdomen’ + *-an), found in a number of WMP and OC languages, since here the suffix clearly was used adjectivally in PMP. Like *-en, reflexes of *-an sometimes mean ‘inflicted with’ or ‘suffering from’ the referent of the base (Mongondow, Makassarese, Chamorro). In general the use of *-an decreases sharply as one moves southward from the Philippines, and eastward in Indonesia. The evidence for POc *-an is slim, but difficult to dismiss, although it probably was something of a relic affix in the eastern region of the Austronesian-speaking world even at this early time.
33741 *-ana attributive suffix 12497 POC *-ana attributive suffix
24832 *anabu shrub or small tree: Abroma augusta L. 181 PWMP *anabu shrub or small tree: Abroma augusta L.
Note: Also Isneg anabnó ‘a malvaceous tree with red or yellow flowers’, Iban ñabuʔ ‘grass sp.’, Malagasy adábo ‘a tree (Ficus sp.); if eaten to excess the fruit is said to cause a vomiting of blood’. Palauan lab (rather than **ŋelab) suggests that unstressed initial vowels in trisyllables were lost prior to the addition of word-initial ŋ.
33728 *anad accustomed to, skilled at, used to 12483 PPh *anad accustomed to, skilled at, used to
12484 PPh *ma-anad (gloss uncertain)
24833 182 PMP *anaduq long (of objects) [doublet: *adaduq]
Note: Also Saisiyat inaroɁ (of objects)’, Alune nanu ‘long’.
32667 *anam a plant: Glochidion spp. 11068 PPh *anam a plant: Glochidion spp.
32668 *ananay₁ exclamation of pain; ouch! 11069 PPh *ananay₁ exclamation of pain; ouch!
Note: Also Bontok anána ‘sickness; hurt; pain’ (used in talking to small children).
32669 *ananay₂ go or do something slowly, take one’s time 11070 PPh *ananay₂ go or do something slowly, take one’s time
24837 *anaŋ dehortatory exclamation 238 PWMP *anaŋ dehortatory exclamation
24835 *anapiŋ cheek 233 PWMP *anapiŋ cheek
Note: Also Cebuano ápiŋ ‘cheek’. The direction of metathesis assumed in this comparison is arbitrary, but is motivated in part by the observation that nominal bases with a reflex of initial *n are less common than nominal bases with a reflex of initial *p in most of the languages of Indonesia and the Philippines.
32670 *anayup beautyberry: Callicarpa spp. 11071 PPh *anayup beautyberry: Callicarpa spp.
Note: Also Ilokano anuyop ‘a plant: Callicarpa cana, Callicarpa formosana.
24838 *andap phosphorescent centipede (?) 239 PWMP *andap phosphorescent centipede (?)
Note: Also Sasak andam andam ‘glowworm’. None of the known Philippine reflexes refers specifically to a phosphorescent millipede, but two considerations favor the gloss I have given. First, the semantic reflexes in Ngaju Dayak and the South Sulawesi languages agree closely in referring to such an insect. Second, on the whole semantic extensions proceed by generalizing properites of the concrete objects of experience rather than by concretizing a priori general properties. I thus consider it unlikely that *andap referred to phosphorescence as such. It is probable that some still undeterminded morpheme which was marked by the *qali/kali- prefix also meant ‘luminous millipede’ (Banjarese halimañar ‘luminous millipede’, Malay kelemayar ‘luminous millipede’, Karo Batak katikeran ‘phosphorescent millipede’, Toba Batak hatitioran ‘phosphorescent millipede’, Ambai halimontan ‘phosphorescent light of luminous millipede or toadstool’, Malay (Jakarta) kalimayah ‘luminous millipede’, Tae' andaʔ kalamoyan ‘phosphorescent millipede’).
David Mead (email of January 18, 2015) informs me that “in all of Southeast Asia there are only two described luminous centipede species, of which only the first one listed below -- because of its wide distribution -- could have been the reference of *andap.
1. Orphnaeus brevilabiatus (Newport 1845), a small soil centipede, thread-like body about 3 cm long, 1 mm in diameter with 67 to 81 pairs of legs, known from Africa through Hawaii and the Galapagos Islands, a widely distributed "tropical tramp species"
The confusion of O. brevilabiatus with millipedes has two sources. First, the small size, elongated body shape and numerous leg pairs have caused non-specialists to confuse it with (true) millipedes -- and probably even more so when seen at night under dim lighting conditions. Second, the Dutch term duizenpoot, which can refer to both millipedes and centipedes, has probably added another layer of complexity when Dutch sources have been (mis)translated. There is no confusion on the part of myriapodologists, but, sadly, it must be laid at the feet of linguists and lexicographers. Thus, for example, Smith and Schmidgall-Tellings include in their Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary the self-contradictory entry: "kelemayar luminous millipede, glow-worm, Orphnaeus brevilabiatus." And for a quarter-century in Sulawesi we employed a word list which asked for, as one of its items, the local word for ‘luminescent millipede’!”
24840 *anduŋ ancestors 243 PMP *anduŋ ancestors
24842 *aniŋal echo 245 PMP *aniŋal echo
Note: Also Bikol aniniŋál ‘echo, reverberation’. Possibly *qani-niŋal, with a variant of the *qali/kali- prefix, and haplology both in Hanunóo and in Asilulu.
24841 244 Note: Also Lun Dayeh menipeh ‘snake’, Kelabit menipeh ‘generic for poisonous snakes’, Kiput lipah ‘snake’, Berawan (Long Terawan) lipeh ‘snake’, Miri ñipah ‘snake’, Melanau (Mukah) dipa ‘snake’, Paku adipe ‘snake’, Samihim undipe ‘snake’, Kapuas handipeʔ ‘snake’. Ngadha nipa may reflect PMP *nipay ‘snake’.
24843 246 24847 250 PPh *antábay stay with, accompany
Note: Also Bikol aŋtábay ‘accompany, escort, stay with; stay tuned to a particular radio station or television channel’.
24844 247 24845 248 Note: Also Sangir antibeʔ ‘suppose, suspect’, Gorontalo wantobu ‘guess, suspicion’.
24846 249 PWMP *anteŋ still, calm, quiet
Note: Also Bare'e onto ‘stop; keep quiet; remain’, anta ‘(priestly language) stop; keep quiet; remain’. If Makassarese antaŋ is connected with the latter form this comparison will be invalidated. Wilkinson (1959) erroneously gives Malay (Jakarta) antéŋ, with last-syllable mid-front vowel rather than shwa. The correct form appears in Chaer (1976). Possibly with root *-teŋ₂ ‘stare, look fixedly at’.
28851 6082 24850 253 Note: With root *-zak ‘step, tread’.
24834 *aNak child, offspring; son, daughter 183 PAN *aNak child, offspring; son, daughter; interest on a loan
184 PMP *anak child, offspring; son, daughter; brother's child (man speaking), sister's child (woman speaking); young animal or plant; young; small (for its kind); dependent or component part of something larger; native, resident, inhabitant; interest on a loan
185 PWMP *a-anak-an doll
186 PAN *aN-aNak child
187 PMP *an-anak child
188 PWMP *daŋ-sa-anak relatives
189 PPh *hin-anak-an brood, flock, lots of children
190 191 192 PAN *ma-anak (gloss uncertain)
193 PMP *ma-anak bear children, give birth
194 PWMP *maka-anak consider as one's child
195 PWMP *mampaR-anak aken give birth to
196 197 PWMP *maŋ-anak-i have children, increase
198 PMP *maR-anak give birth; have a child
199 PAN *maRe-anak parent and child
200 PWMP *pa-anak-an (gloss uncertain)
201 PWMP *paŋ-anak smaller thing of a pair (?)
202 PWMP *paR-anak act of giving birth (?)
203 PWMP *paR-anak-an womb, uterus; birth canal
204 PWMP *sa-anak (gloss uncertain)
205 206 PWMP *um-anak give birth, bear a child
207 PWMP *ka-anak-an time of birth (?)
208 PWMP *kam-anak-en nephew, niece
209 210 PWMP *anak-en brother's child (man speaking), sister's child (woman speaking)
211 212 PWMP *anak anak-an doll (?)
213 PMP *anak apij twin
214 PMP *anak bahi, anak babahi, anak binahi wife-taking lineage
215 PMP *anak buaq relative (?)
216 PWMP *anak daRa maiden, virgin, girl of marriageable age
217 PMP *anak ma-Ruqanay, anak (la)laki wife-giving lineage
218 PMP *anak a ma-iRaq neonate (lit. 'red child')
219 PMP *anak a qulu first-born, eldest child (lit. 'head child')
220 PMP *anak i banua fellow villager, fellow community-member
221 PMP *anak i batu small stones, gravel
222 PWMP *anak i hapuy sparks of fire
223 PWMP *anak i haRezan step or rung of a ladder
224 PMP *anak i kahiw young tree, sprout
225 226 PMP *anak i lima little finger, pinkie
227 PMP *anak i manuk chick, baby chicken
228 PMP *anak i mata pupil of the eye
229 PMP *anak i panaq arrow
230 PMP *anak i qaRta slave (?)
231 PMP *anak i sumpit blowpipe dart
232 PMP *anak i tau someone else's child
10616 PPh *taR-anak to care for children
Note: Also Proto-Rukai *valakə ‘child’, Rejang anaʔ ‘child, offspring’, Malay dansanak ‘relatives’, Karo Batak danak danak ‘child(ren), young people as against adults’, me-danak ‘childish’, Makassarese ammanaʔ ‘get a child (of father and mother), bear, give birth’, Pangasinan aŋ-anák ‘one who has sponsored a child at a baptism, etc.’, Itbayaten mi-ʔanak ‘bear a child’, Mandar me-aneʔ give birth; summon a child’, Balinese kep-onak-an ‘sibling's child’, Bahasa Indonesia ke-anak anak-an ‘in a childish way or manner’, Manobo (Western Bukidnon) neŋ-anak ‘parent’, Kelabit neŋ-anak ‘give birth’ (probably - /ŋ-/ plus /teŋ-anak/ ‘date of birth’). The following additional observations are noteworthy:
1) apart from the explicit reconstructions offered here, non-cognate compound expressions based on a reflex of *aNak are cited for a number of meanings, including 1. adopted child, 2. bastard/illegitimate child, 3. calf of the leg, 4. clapper of a bell, 5. clitoris, 6. nobility, 7. orphan, 8. stepchild, and 9. uvula; many or all of these may derive from compound expressions which cannot yet be reconstructed;
2) in the same category we should perhaps include the apparent cognate set Tagalog anák na bunsóʔ ‘youngest or last child’, Iban anak bunsu ‘youngest child’, Bahasa Indonesia anak buŋsu ‘last child’, Acehnese anɨʔ buŋsu ‘youngest child, last-born’, and the non-cognate forms Rejang anoʔ uʔai suʔaŋ ‘youngest child in family’, Manggarai anak cucu ‘youngest child’ (lit. ‘child of the breast’), Rembong anak sopo ‘last-born child’, Kambera ana ka-muri ‘youngest child’, Rotinese ana muli-k ‘last-born child’, Erai ana(n) ai-mori ‘youngest child’, Kei yanan warin/loisus ‘youngest child’, and Soboyo anaʔ ipuc ‘youngest child’, since Tagalog bunsóʔ appears to be a Malay loan. Given the reconstruction PMP *anak a qulu ‘eldest/first-born child’ (lit. ‘head child’) we would expect a parallel construction with ‘tail’ (PMP *ikuR) or ‘back’ (PMP *udehi) for the meaning ‘youngest/last-born child’; there is some known support for this, but to date it is confined to CMP languages;
3) some liberties have been taken with the comparative method in connection with the reconstructions for ‘twin’, ‘rice mortar’ and ‘blowpipe dart’: since PMP *sumpit ‘blowpipe’ is well-established, *anak i + blowpipe appears justified by the comparison given here, although only one of the languages cited happens to reflect *sumpit; the same is true of *anak apij and *anak i lesuŋ, since the forms for ‘mortar’ cited in connection with a reflex of PMP *anak reflect several doublet forms rather than a single phonologically uniform etymon;
4) some widespread compounds formed with a reflex of PAn *aNak clearly are a product of convergent innovation, as in the use of this morpheme with reference to interest on money in Western Paiwan, Ngaju Dayak, Malagasy, Iban, Malay, and Toba Batak, ‘child of the lock’ = ‘key’, and ‘child of the school’ = ‘pupil, student’. In addition to the affixed, reduplicated and compounded forms of PMP *anak cited above, forms such as Pangasinan anák ‘child’, ának ‘children’ agree with a handful of POc nouns referring to persons which indicate the plural by shifting the accent to the first syllable, or by lengthening the first syllable vowel (POc *papine ‘woman’, *pāpine ‘women’). These agreements suggest that an accent shift or rule of vowel lengthening was employed im PMP to indicate the plural of a small set of nouns which referred to persons.
24836 *aNay insect of the order Isoptera: termite, white ant 234 PAN *aNay insect of the order Isoptera: termite, white ant [doublet: *SayaN]
235 POC *ane insect of the order Isoptera: termite, white ant
236 PPh *ma-anay termite-infested
237 PWMP *anay-en eaten by termites, damaged by termites
Note: Also, Ifugaw ánay ‘termite’, Dairi-Pakpak Batak anei ‘white ant’, Dairi-Pakpak Batak cane ‘white ant’, Rejang naney ‘ants, termites’, Bikol ánay ‘termite’, Bikol áloy ‘termite’, Proto-Sangiric *uanay ‘termite’, Sangir uane ‘white ant’, Haga ghane ‘termite, white ant’, Li'o ŋana ‘termite, white ant’, Wuvulu anana ‘termite, white ant’, Lou ŋan ‘termite, white ant’, Penchal han ‘termite, white ant’, Lenkau nan ‘termite, white ant’, 'Āre'āre sane ‘white ant’; 'Āre'āre sane-ʔa ‘eaten by white ants’.
Although such apparently irregular reflexes of *aNay as Li'o ŋana and Lou ŋan allow the reconstruction of a doublet, the variety of unexplained initial consonants in the forms cited here suggest that this probably would be an overinterpretation of the data.
24949 *añam plait (mats, baskets, etc.) 388 PMP *añam plait (mats, baskets, etc.) [doublet: *añem, *ayam]
389 PWMP *ma-añam plait, weave (mats, baskets)
390 PWMP *maŋ-añam plait, weave (mats, baskets)
391 PWMP *añam-en what has been plaited or woven
Note: Also Old Javanese anam ‘plait, weave, twine; compose’, Javanese anam ‘woven, braided’, Kambera ŋanaŋu ‘to plait, as a mat’, pa-ŋanaŋu ‘plaitwork’. PMP *añam clearly referred to the plaiting of mats or baskets, as against the weaving of cloth (*tenun), and probably the plaiting of hair (PWMP *apid). It remains unclear how it differed semantically from PMP *batuR ‘plait, weave’.
24952 394 PMP *añem plait, braid [doublet: *añam]
24848 *añuliŋ a fruit-bearing plant: Pisonia umbellifera 251 PMP *añuliŋ a fruit-bearing plant: Pisonia umbellifera
Note: Verheijen (1984) compares Manggarai nuliŋ with Cebuano anuliŋ, a form which does not appear in Wolff (1972).
28871 6104 PPh *áŋal to complain, argue back
33482 *aŋaŋ large earthenware jar 12203 PPh *aŋaŋ large earthenware jar
24950 392 PMP *aŋaq open the mouth wide [disjunct: *qaŋab, *qaŋap]
Note: With root *-ŋa(q) ‘gape, open the mouth wide’.
32681 *aŋas face, countenance 11086 PPh *aŋas face, countenance
Note: This comparison was first noted by Zorc (1986:162). The semantic category ‘face’ seems to have been unusually unstable, and was filled by the Sanskrit loanword rupa ‘semblance; form; look’ in major lowland languages such as Ilokano (rúpa ‘face’), and even in remote mountain languages (e.g. Bontok lópa, Ibaloy dopa) through the medium of Malay.
The final -s shows that Tiruray aŋas is a loanword. However, it presumably was borrowed from some neighboring language for which a record is still unknown, and both the geographical and genetic distance between it and the forms in northern Luzon ensure that this form can be assigned to PPh.
24951 *aŋat to challenge, confront 393 PWMP *aŋat to challenge, confront
31152 *aŋay departure (?) 9146 PAN *aŋay departure (?)
9147 PAN *um-aŋay to leave, depart (?)
Note: This comparison was first brought to my attention by Daniel Kaufman (email of 4/15/2013). The forms in Malayo-Polynesian languages could conceivably be *maŋ-ai reanalyzed as *um-aŋay (cf. Tsuchida, Yamada and Moriguchi 1987:182, where this is implied), but this explanation cannot be applied to Tsou moŋoi.
33483 *aŋáy to fit, match, be suitable 12204 PPh *aŋáy to fit, match, be suitable
24962 *aŋ(e)cej stench of sweaty armpits 414 PWMP *aŋ(e)cej stench of sweaty armpits [disjunct: *aŋ(e)ceŋ]
Note: Also Aklanon áŋtod ‘smelling overcooked (said of food, esp. rice)’, Maranao lanseŋ ‘malodorous’, Malay (Jakarta) baŋséŋ ‘smelling foully, as a bug’. An association of the meaning ‘repulsive odor’ with the phoneme sequence *(C)aŋ(e)C (where C = consonant) is widespread in Taiwan, the Philippines, and western Indonesia.
24963 *aŋ(e)ceŋ stench of sweaty armpits 415 PWMP *aŋ(e)ceŋ stench of sweaty armpits [disjunct: *aŋ(e)cej]
24961 *aŋ(e)hud young 413 PWMP *aŋ(e)hud young
24964 *aŋ(e)lem stench 416 PMP *aŋ(e)lem stench
12111 POC *aŋom stench
Note: Shwa syncope did not take place in PAn *baqeRu > Nggela vaolu ‘new’. However, the syncope and cluster reduction assumed in this form are paralleled in PAn *qaŋeliC ‘smell of burnt rice, etc.’ > Nggela aŋi ‘emit a strong smell or scent, good or bad, usually bad’.
30881 *aŋ(ə)tad in the line of sight, clearly visible 8709 PPh *aŋ(ə)tad in the line of sight, clearly visible
24953 395 Note: Richards (1981) compares Iban aŋi with Malay waŋi ‘fragrant’, but the latter is itself a loanword from Javanese (ultimately from *baŋi).
33760 *aŋi₂ sharp 12536 POC *aŋi₂ sharp
Note: Possibly a chance resemblance.
32078 *aŋkás to ride together with someone else, ride tandem 12183 PPh *aŋkás to ride together with someone else, ride tandem
Note: Although this term applies in most modern languages to riding tandem on a vehicle, this could not have been its original sense, which presumably was for two to ride together on the back of a beast of burden, presumably a water buffalo.
24954 396 PWMP *aŋkat lift, raise, pick up
397 PWMP *ka-aŋkat moveable (?)
398 PWMP *maŋ-aŋkat lift, raise, carry
399 PWMP *maŋ-aŋkat-aŋkat lift, elevate
400 PWMP *maR-aŋkat lift, raise, pick up
401 PWMP *pa-aŋkat (gloss uncertain)
402 PWMP *paŋ-aŋkat act of lifting or raising
403 PWMP *taR-aŋkat lift, raise, pick up
404 405 PWMP *aŋkat aŋkat hold up, keep aloft
Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat egkat ‘stand up, lift up, get up from a sitting position’, Kankanaey eŋkát ‘the place from where it is fetched, taken, brought (money, camotes, wood, etc.)’, Lauje leŋkat ‘depart’, Dondo boŋkat ‘depart’, Sa'a aka ‘pull out (as teeth); emerge (as a crab from its den)’. I assume that Manggarai aŋkak ‘lift, raise; depart’, Rembong aŋkak ‘depart, go; lift, raise’ are irregularly altered loans from Malay.
24955 406 Note: The Bisayan forms may contain *-kub₁ ‘cover’ (cp. Mongondow aŋkub ‘to cover’, where u can come only from *u). With root *-keb₁ ‘cover’.
24956 *aŋkub cover 407 PMP *aŋkub cover
408 POC *akup cover
Note: With root *-kub₁ ‘cover’. Pigeaud (1938) gives Javanese aŋkup ‘calyx’; aŋkub was offered by Soeparno (p.c.). Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *aŋkub ‘cover’.
24957 *aŋkup scoop up with both hands; a double handful 409 PMP *aŋkup₁ scoop up with both hands; a double handful
12574 POC *agup pick up with both hands
Note: Also Hiligaynon hákup ‘handful, fistful’. This item evidently referred to the gathering of particulate matter in the two cupped hands. It is possible that those forms associated with the meaning ‘pincers, tweezers’ are distinct, but I treat them as part of the same cognate set on the assumption that they share a common semantic element in the approximation of two surfaces brought together in order to lift an object. Kenyah, Ngaju Dayak akop show unexplained lowering of *u, but clearly are cognate. Probably with root *-kup ‘enclose, cover’.
32113 10360 POC *aŋo turmeric: Curcuma longa
10361 POC *aŋo-aŋo-ana yellow
24960 *aŋu aŋu silly, senile, doting 412 PWMP *aŋu aŋu silly, senile, doting
Note: Also Malay aŋum, aŋup ‘yawn, gape’. Cebuano aŋuaŋuh-un ‘somewhat senile’ suggests *aŋuh, but the Iban cognate points instead to a final vowel.
30180 6979 POC *aŋusu to spit; spittle [doublet: *qanus-i]
Note: Also Old Javanese hidu ‘spittle’, aŋidu ‘to spit’, Nggela aŋuhu ‘to foam at the mouth, as a dying man’, Kwaio ŋisu ‘saliva, spittle, gall’, ŋisu-a ‘to spit on (something)’, Lau ŋisu ‘spittle; to spit’, Arosi ŋisu ‘to spit’, ŋisu-hi ‘to spit on’.
24853 *apa₁ what? 256 PMP *apa₁ what? [doublet: *sapa]
257 PWMP *maŋ-apa why?
258 PWMP *maŋ-apa-i do something to someone
259 260 PMP *apa apa something; anything; everything
261 PWMP *NEG + apa apa nothing
Note: Also Chamorro hafa ‘what, question word; also used in common greetings’, Kedayan ʌpe ‘what?’, Buli ahai ‘what?’. Reflexes of PMP *apa have a rather puzzling distribution. Throughout Taiwan, the Philippines and much of Borneo reflexes of *a-nu or *i-nu mean ‘what?’. The northernmost reflexes of *apa are found in Lun Dayeh and Kelabit of northern Sarawak, where the unaffixed stem apəh means ‘which’, and affixed forms may be used for other question words (Lun Dayeh i-apeh, Kelabit ŋ-apəh ‘where?’).
Only on reaching the Malayic group of languages in southern Borneo do we begin to find languages in which an unaffixed reflex of *apa means ‘what?’. The same type of reflex is widespread throughout the remaining portions of Indonesia, although reflexes of the doublet *sapa are occasionally found in western Indonesia, are somewhat more common in eastern Indonesia and entirely replaced *apa in POc.
29890 6553 24852 255 Note: Chamorro afaʔfaʔ (rather than **guafaʔfaʔ) suggests *qa-, but the Chamorro treatment of initial vowels may have differed in disyllables and trisyllables. Palauan uʔáuʔ shows metathesis of anticipated **uáʔuʔ, a change which can be seen in the reflexes of some other reduplicated monosyllables, as with *panpan ‘plank’ > uláol ‘floor’ and *bujbuj ‘pour, sprinkle’ > odi-bsóbs ‘pour out (large quantity of liquid)’.
33183 *apat lie in wait, set an ambush in hunting game 11684 PPh *apat lie in wait, set an ambush in hunting game [doublet: *qambat]
32715 *apatut small tree, probably Morinda citrifolia Linn. 11145 PPh *apatut small tree, probably Morinda citrifolia Linn.
24854 *aped hindrance, obstacle 262 PWMP *aped hindrance, obstacle [doublet: *habed]
33750 *ap(e)lag lying flat (of something that is usually upright, or in some other position) 12511 PPh *ap(e)lag lying flat (of something that is usually upright, or in some other position)
24855 *apeled taste of unripe banana; slightly bitter or astringent taste 263 PMP *apeled taste of unripe banana; slightly bitter or astringent taste [doublet: *sapeled] [disjunct: *pelet]
31577 *ap(e)rus to touch someone lightly, rub the back 12184 PPh *ap(e)rus to touch someone lightly, rub the back
24856 *apid₁ braid 264 PWMP *apid₁ braid
Note: With root *-pid ‘wound together, braid’. Apparently distinct from *Sapij ‘twins’.
24857 *apid₂ lie in stacks, one on top of the other 265 PWMP *apid₂ lie in stacks, one on top of the other
32701 *apiŋ cheek 11118 PPh *apiŋ cheek
Note: David Zorc (p.c.) suggests including Manobo (Western Bukidnon) enapiŋ ‘cheek’, and similar forms in other languages of Mindanao in the same cognate set, but this raises unresolved questions of morphology. Together with Ilokano piŋpíŋ ‘cheek’ these forms may indicate a monosyllabic root *-piŋ.
24859 *apiRit type of finch, rice bird 268 PWMP *apiRit type of finch, rice bird [doublet: *ampeRij]
Note: It is assumed that Ngaju Dayak ampit reflects earlier *ampihit, with syllable loss motivated by the general disyllabic canonical target of non-Oceanic Austronesian languages.
24860 269 24864 *apu grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal) 273 PAN *apu grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal) [doublet: *empu, *impu, *umpu]
274 PMP *ampu grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal) [doublet: *empu, *impu, *umpu]
12112 POC *abu grandparent
275 PPh *in-apu (gloss uncertain)
276 PPh *ka-apu-an descendants
277 PPh *maŋa-apu ancestors
278 PMP *pa-ampu grandparent, possibly vocative
12113 POC *pa-abu grandfather
279 PPh *paŋ-apu descendants (?)
280 PEMP *t-ampu grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal)
12114 POC *t-abu grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal)
281 PPh *apu-en regard as a grandparent or grandchild (?)
282 PPh *apu-q grandparent, ancestor, lord, master, owner (voc.)
283 PPh *apu apu forefathers, ancestors
Note: Also Malagasy áfy ‘grandchild’, Simalur ambo, ambu ‘grandparents; ancestors’, Yamdena ambo ‘reciprocal address term used between grandparents and grandchildren’. Reflexes of *t-ampu and *ampu-ʔ almost certainly had a wider distribution than is indicated here (cf. Blust 1979). Finally, Philippine languages invariably reflect a form with non-prenasalized medial consonant, whereas almost all diagnostic witnesses outside the Philippines indicate *-mb- in this form and in the doublets *empu, *impu and *umpu.
24861 *apuk dust 270 PMP *apuk dust [doublet: *qabuk]
Note: Although the evidence for a semantic distinction is rather thin, PWMP *qabuk ‘dust’ and *apuk ‘dust’ apparently had somewhat different referents. Whereas the former probably referred to dust produced by the trituration of dry substances (sago dust, sawdust, etc.), the latter seems to have referred to dirty particles, as in soot, mildew, or old cobwebs. With root *-puk₂ ‘dust’.
24862 271 PMP *apuni tree fern [disjunct: *puni₁]
Note: Also Sangir puniŋ ‘tree fern, giant fern’, Tondano lampuni ‘tree fern: Alsophila sp.’, Ngadha poni ‘tree with very flimsy wood’.
24865 *apuŋ float 284 PMP *apuŋ float
285 PMP *apuŋ apuŋ floating
Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat abúŋ ‘float along with the current (of wind or river). With root *-puŋ₂ ‘to float’.
24863 272 Note: Apparently distinct from *qapuR ‘lime (part of the betel chew)’.
24866 286 Note: Also Mentawai āpu ‘boil, abscess’.
24867 287 PWMP *aqa negative marker: no, not
Note: Also Kenyah aʔa ‘affirmative, yes’. Bintulu ã is assumed to exhibit a unique contraction, with nasality introduced by the earlier glottal closure.
24868 *aqedas plant with sharp leaves 288 PWMP *aqedas plant with sharp leaves
Note: Isneg adās is assumed to be a metathesis of earlier **ādas.
33485 *aráy exclamation of pain 12206 PPh *aráy exclamation of pain
32585 *aren nobility, member of the chiefly class 10956 PMP *aren nobility, member of the chiefly class
Note: Also Muna iaro ‘former village or district chief’. Possibly a chance resemblance, as no other evidence for this form is known. However, if valid this is a critically important comparison, as it provides direct linguistic evidence for hereditary rank distinctions in PMP society.
30544 7831 PWMP *ari come, toward the speaker [disjunct: *ai₃, *aRi]
7832 Note: Also Tagalog halí ‘imperative, come!’, Bikol halí ‘go on with, continue’, háliʔ ‘from; to come from’.
24869 *aRak walk single-file; be positioned one behind the other 289 PMP *aRak walk single-file; be positioned one behind the other
290 PWMP *in-aRak one who is led, one who is conducted
291 PWMP *maŋ-aRak walk single-file; be positioned one behind the other
292 PWMP *maR-aRak line up one behind the other
293 PWMP *aRak-aRak walk single-file; be positioned one behind the other
Note: In a number of languages a reflex of *aRak refers to leading, and this may have been a semantic component of this term. However, *aRak appears to have differed semantically from PAn *SateD, PMP *hateD ‘accompany, escort’ in that the focal sense of the former term was physical juxtaposition one behind the other in linear order, while the focal sense of the latter term was simple accompaniment.
33604 *aRama kind of large marine crab 12344 PPh *aRama kind of large marine crab
Note: Also Bikol ugamá ‘small brownish and orange freshwater crab’. Thanks to David Zorc for drawing my attention to several of these forms in central and northern Luzon.
24870 294 PWMP *aRani harvest; to harvest [doublet: *qaniS]
Note: Also Itbayaten yaɁni‘idea of harvesting’.
24872 296 12115 Note: Also Tiruray ansam ‘edible fern: Helminthostachys zeylanica (Linn.) Hook.’. Sneddon (1984) draws attention to the cognate forms in Proto-Sangiric and Malay.
24873 *aRi come; toward the speaker; let’s go! 297 PAN *aRi come; toward the speaker; let’s go! [doublet: *ai₃, *ari]
299 PAN *um-aRi to come [doublet: *um-ai, '(ai', *um-ari 'ari)']
7827 Note: Also Mansaka kadi ‘come here’, Bare'e maʔi ‘hither; to come’. Undoubtedly the root in Dempwolff's (1934-38) *maRi (< *um-aRi) ‘toward the speaker’. *R > r is rare in Paiwan, and this form together with Bikol mári ‘come here!’, Aklanon malí ‘come on! let's go!’ suggests a root *ari, in contrast to Mongondow agiʔ, magiʔ, which points to *um-aRi and Favorlang/Babuza, Manggarai mai, Tiruray ay ‘come’, which support *um-ai. I assume that Yami ai (Rau 2006) is a contraction of ayi, which regularly reflects *aRi (Tsuchida, Yamada and Moriguchi 1987:77). That the reduplicated form also occurred in the meaning indicated seems likely from Bahasa Indonesia mari ‘let's go!’, mari-mari ‘you go on ahead!’. The final glottal stop in Mongondow agiʔ, magiʔ presumably is a vocative suffix that has been generalized to include magiʔ; cf. Blust (1980).
24874 *aRud scrape, shave (as rattan) 300 PWMP *aRud scrape, shave (as rattan) [doublet: *kaRud 'scrape, grate, rasp']
Note: It is tempting to see this form as containing the monosyllabic root *-rud ‘scratch, scrape’ (Blust 1988), but the Ilokano and Bontok reflexes point to *R.
24875 *aRuhu a shore tree: Casuarina equisetifolia 301 PMP *aRuhu a shore tree: Casuarina equisetifolia [disjunct: *qaRuhu]
302 POC *aRu a shore tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Note: Also Aklanon aguhóʔ ‘native pine-like tree: Casuarina equisetifolia’, Cebuano agúhuʔ ‘Australian pine: Casuarina equisetifolia’. Lumber and ornamental tree. The roots and bark have medicinal uses. Young specimens are used as Christmas trees’, Kelabit aruʔ ‘a tree: Casuarina spp.’, Iban ruʔ ‘trees: Casuarina spp.’, Karo Batak eru ‘a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia’, Nggela aru ‘sp. of tree: Casuarina, Kwaio salu ‘a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia’. Zorc (1982:127) reconstructs PMP *qaRuːhuʔ ‘Casuarina’, but his treatment oversimplifies the complexity of this comparison.
First, all languages except Minangkabau, Palauan and Chamorro are ambiguous for the contrast of *q- and zero. Palauan and Chamorro unambiguously reflect a form with initial vowel, whereas Minangkabau unambiguously reflects a form with initial *q. The evidence for the onset is thus contradictory. Similarly, Aklanon, Cebuano and Iban unambiguously support *-ʔ, whereas Tagalog agúho, Bikol agúho contrarily support *-u (Zorc 1982:115). In an effort to accomodate some of these mutually incompatible correspondences I have reconstructed disjuncts *aRuhu, *qaRuhu, and assigned the Aklanon and Cebuano forms with -/ʔ/ to this note rather than posit at least two more highly questionable disjuncts *aRuhuʔ and *qaRuhuʔ.
The magico-religious associations of the Casuarina in Melanesia which are suggested by Arosi saru and Mota aru are further strengthened by e.g. Tolai iāra ‘sp. of tree, Casuarina equisetifolia, the Australian pine or ‘she-oak’, the leaves of which are used as a magic charm and are believed to be especially potent in warding off evil spirits’.
24878 *asa one 305 PAN *asa₁ one [doublet: *esa, *isa₁]
Note: Itbayaten -ʔ- in aʔsa ‘one’, aʔpat (< *xepat) ‘four’, and aʔnam (< *enem) ‘six’ suggests that aʔsa may derive from a reduplicated form of *esa in which the reduplicating vowel was stereotypically *a (cf. Blust 1974, Yamada 1991). It is possible that a similar history underlies all forms that provide prima facie support for *asa.
24876 *asag incite, urge on, stir up 303 PWMP *asag incite, urge on, stir up
Note: Also Balinese atag ‘spur on, incite, encourage’, Mandar assal ‘incite, egg on’. Lau sata ‘urge strongly’ shows regular correspondences with the forms cited here, but probably is a chance resemblance, since no supporting evidence from any other Oceanic language is known.
24879 *asaŋ₁ mortise and tenon joint 306 PWMP *asaŋ₁ mortise and tenon joint
30578 *asaŋ₂ village 7961 PAN *asaŋ₃ village
24877 304 Note: Also Bontok aset ‘squeeze dry, as a mill squeezes the juice from sugarcane’, Rejang aseut ‘shallow’, Rejang meŋ-aseut ‘ebb, recede’. Dempwolff's (1934-38) attempt to include such Oceanic forms as Sa'a ma-ata ‘dried up, of a sore’, and Samoan masa ‘(of the tide) neap; (of a canoe, boat, etc.) be empty (after bailing out, etc.)’ (the latter now assigned to *maja) appears to have been misguided.
24880 307 PWMP *asep incense, ritual smoke [doublet: *qaseb] [disjunct: *qasep]
Note: Also Tagalog asáp, hasáp/ ‘suffocation or eye irritation by smoke or vapors’; asap-ín ‘to fumigate (insects, animals, etc.)’; Kenyah sap ‘evaporation; smoke’, Narum sap ‘smoke’, Miri sap ‘smoke’, Toba Batak maŋ-asap ‘to smoke’, paŋ-asap ‘formula uttered during ritual purification with smoke’, par-asap-an ‘incense-burner’. Both the Tagalog and Toba Batak forms probably are loans from Malay, although the initial consonant in the second Tagalog variant presents difficulties to this interpretation. Pateda (1977) gives Gorontalo watopo ‘asap’ (= ‘smoke’), but all of his supporting examples suggest that this is a typographical error for 'atap’ (= ‘thatch, roof’). Finally, whereas PMP *qasu apparently designated smoke or steam without cultural implication, *asep and its variants evidently referred to smoke in the context of ritual purification.
24883 *asi₁ flesh 311 PWMP *asi₁ flesh [doublet: *Sesi]
Note: Also Itbayaten aʔsi ‘fruit, meat of fruit, meat, flesh, rice ears, corn ears’.
24884 312 Note: Possibly identical to *asih ‘pretend’. Compare Cebuano ási ‘expression needling a person for pretending’, ási-ási ‘presume to do something one cannot do’.
24885 313 314 PWMP *maŋ-asi make rice wine (?)
315 Note: Since the great majority of witnesses reflect *asiʔ in the meaning ‘cooked rice’, it might be questioned why this meaning is not also associated with the ancestral form. However, reflexes of PAn *Semay ‘cooked rice’ persisted in some of the languages cited here (or their close relatives). It is tempting to dismiss this cognate set as a product of borrowing from Malay, but under such a hypothesis at least three observations remain unexplained: 1) the absence of the initial nasal in Kadazan Dusun, Bisaya (Limbang), Iban , and the Chamic languages, 2) the presence of the final glottal stop in Iban and Sasak, and 3) the meanings of the reflexes in Kadazan Dusun and Bisaya (Limbang). It is possible that this form began as an innovation in northern Borneo which spread to Malay while the latter still occupied the Malayic homeland of southwest Borneo. If so it evidently underwent a semantic change in the process of borrowing, and was then borrowed from Brunei Malay into Kapampangan (cf. Kapampangan nasiʔ ‘cooked (boiled) rice’).
24881 *asih pretend 308 PWMP *asih pretend
309 PWMP *asih asih pretend
Note: Also Iban asiʔ ‘victim, dupe’, Dairi-Pakpak Batak asa ‘stimulate a real action’.
24882 *asio sneeze 310 POC *asio sneeze
Note: Given its onomatopoetic character this comparison is very possibly a convergent development.
24890 *asu₁ dog 320 PAN *asu₁ dog
321 322 323 PPh *paŋ-asu what is hunted (?)
Note: Also Pazeh wazu, Kavalan wasu, Paiwan vatu, Amis waco, Isneg áso, Ma'anyan antahuʔ, Iban asuʔ, Muna dahu ‘dog’. Based on the unexpected glide in Pazeh wazu and apparently corroboratory features in other languages, Dyen (1962) reconstructed PAn *Wasu ‘dog’. However, the data on which he based the reconstruction of *W- in this and certain otehr forms were misinterpreted. The initial consonant in the four Formosan languages cited remains unexplained, but is not confirmed by any extra-Formosan witnesses. In addition, the following observations are noteworthy:
(1) Many languages appear to contain a simple or reduplicated reflex of *asu in the name of some kind of plant, but no specific agreement has yet been found which would permit a reconstruction. Examples include Isneg aŋ-áto ‘common herb some five inches tall. Burn it and place its ashes on a dog in order to enable it to catch the wild boar it has traced’, Casiguran Dumagat asó-asó ‘rattan sp.’, Bontok áso ‘kind of vine growing in thickets, used for binding: Cissampelos pareira L..’, Iban eŋkabaŋ asuʔ ‘a tree: Shorea palembanica Miq..’, Karo Batak asu-asu ‘kind of fine grass’, Tetun asu tanen ‘dog's paw, variety of marine plant’. Some of these may be connected with *ikuR ikuR ni asu ‘a plant with flowers in the shape of a dog's tail, used to treat abscesses’ (q.v.);
(2) Reflexes of this reconstruction, so richly attested from Taiwan, the Philippines, western Indonesia, the Lesser Sundas and much of the southern and Central Moluccas, are to date unattested in any South Halmahera-West New Guinea or OC language. This distribution coincides both with a proposed major subgroup boundary, and to a large extent with the region within which hunting (particularly for wild boar) was traditionally an important means for the acquisition of protein-rich foods. As Rehg (1992) has pointed out, names for ‘dog’ are notoriously variable in Oceanic languages, or even within small regions of the Pacific such as Micronesia. This variability is consonant with a hypothesis that in a Pacific environment the dog lost much of the economic value which it had had in insular Southeast Asia, became a competitor for food, and was itself eaten to extinction in many locations and then reacquired from areas where it had managed to survive.
24891 *asu₂ fetch water, scoop up water 324 PMP *asu₂ fetch water, scoop up water [disjunct: *qasu₁]
24886 *asug shaman in ritual transvestite attire 316 PWMP *asug shaman in ritual transvestite attire
Note: Zorc (1979:25) posits Proto-Central Philippines *ásug ‘sterile, asexual’. This comparison was brought to my attention by D.J. Prentice.
24887 317 PMP *asuk smoke, soot [doublet: *qasu]
Note: Also Rotinese atuk ‘soot, black stain from lamp or candle’.
24888 318 PWMP *asuntiŋ a plant: Cassia sp.
24892 325 PMP *asuŋ incite, spur to action
Note: Also Sundanese asur ‘incite, instigate, arouse to passion; stoke a fire’, Rembong asu ‘incite, spur on’, Sika asu ‘incite cocks to fight’.
33935 12771 PAN *aSik to sweep, remove trash
24897 *atá expression, as of displeasure or surprise 332 PPh *atá expression, as of displeasure or surprise
Note: Also Bikol átaʔ ‘I've already told you’, Kayan atah ‘advice, warning’.
24898 *ata 1pl. incl. possessive pronoun: our 333 PAN *ata 1pl. incl. possessive pronoun: our
Note: Also Amis tata ‘let's go!’. The syntactic function of *ata, as opposed to *ita/kita or *aten remains unclear.
24912 348 24894 329 PWMP *atag persist in an endeavor
Note: Also Manggarai ata ‘intend, want, mean to do something’.
28855 *átaŋ sacrifice to the spirits 6090 PPh *átaŋ₄ sacrifice to the spirits
28854 *átaŋ átaŋ poisonous arthropod 6089 PPh *átaŋ átaŋ poisonous arthropod
Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan in Casiguran Dumagat, although both the discrepancy in meaning between the forms, and the use of the Casiguran Dumagat term to refer to a natural organism make this unlikely.
24899 *ataŋ₁ block, obstruct; something which separates one area from another 334 PWMP *ataŋ₁ block, obstruct; something which separates one area from another
24901 *ataŋ₂ carry on a shoulder pole between two people 336 PWMP *ataŋ₂ carry on a shoulder pole between two people
Note: Also Ifugaw attáŋ ‘act of two or more men who have to carry on their shoulders a load which is a heavy beam, a very big pig tied to a long pole, a trunk, or whatever it may be’.
24902 *ataŋ₃ crossbeam 337 PMP *ataŋ₃ crossbeam
24895 *ataq unhusked rice grain left among the husked grains 330 PWMP *ataq unhusked rice grain left among the husked grains
Note: Also Bikol atá rice bran. Dempwolff (1934-38) assigned Malay antah to *qataq ‘raw, unripe’, but the two forms clearly are distinct.
24896 331 Note: With root *-taR ‘level, flat’.
24903 *atek cover, as with a blanket 338 PCMP *atek cover, as with a blanket
24904 340 PMP *atel itch, itchy [doublet: *gatel] [disjunct: *gatel]
Note: Also Casiguran Dumagat asel ‘type of itch on the feet (said to be caused by walking in animal urine)’.
30582 7966 Note: Also Lotud j-atiʔ ‘1pl in oblique’.
24908 344 Note: Rejang ati does not show the expected breaking of the last vowel (to **atey). In this respect it behaves like the entire set of personal pronouns (Blust 1984).
24909 345 24905 *atimel bedbug 341 PWMP *atimel bedbug [doublet: *qatimela]
Note: Also Bare'e (Luwu) témol ‘chicken lice’.
24906 342 Note: Also Singhi Land Dayak sotip ‘pincers’.
24907 343 Note: Possibly a product of chance convergence.
30524 7781 Note: This comparison for an important grammatical morpheme has a suspiciously tenuous distribution. While there is no question that the form *atu ‘away from speaker’ can be reconstructed for Proto-Polynesian, the evidence for positing a similar form in POc or PMP is exasperatingly thin. It is tempting to see Chamorro gwatu as a borrowing from an Oceanic language, but no obvious source language is available, since there is no other evidence of Polynesian loanwords in the language. It is also tempting to see Muna watu ‘that, there (far and level or low)’ as cognate, but while this can work with either Chamorro or Roviana, it does not work with the Polynesian forms. We are left, then, with an intriguing PMP reconstruction for which minimal supporting evidence is known.
24911 347 Note: Also Cebuano atbáŋ ‘across, opposite; be in the place across; be opponents’.
30990 *atuk smoke 8892 PWMP *atuk smoke [doublet: *asuk]
33412 12104 24914 *au₁ dew 350 PCEMP *au₁ dew
24915 *au₂ yes 351 PAN *au₂ yes
Note: Also Atayal aau ‘exclamation: yes, alright, oh!’, Ilokano aú ‘an interjection, dismissing’, Manggarai ao ‘yes! (answer to a call from afar)’, Rembong ao ‘no, don't’, Gedaged aue ‘yes, certainly’.
24913 349 Note: Also Aua auana ‘wind’, Nauna eul ‘wind (generic)’, Lou aa ‘southeast wind’, Bugotu aara ‘tradewind’, Kwaio ala ‘southeast wind’, Kwaio au ‘southeast wind, wind from sea’. I am indebted to Andrew Pawley (p.c.) for a more detailed gloss of the Motu laurabada than is provided in Lister-Turner and Clark (1930).
24921 *awa exclamation of surprise 357 POC *awa exclamation of surprise
24922 *awaŋ atmosphere, space between earth and sky 358 PMP *awaŋ atmosphere, space between earth and sky
Note: Also Cebuano hawʔaŋ ‘empty’. With root *-waŋ ‘wide open space’.
24916 *awat₁ help, assistance 352 PWMP *awat₁ help, assistance
33994 *awat₂ to separate people who are fighting 12839 PPh *awat₂ to separate people who are fighting
Note: Possibly a Tagalog loan distribution.
32682 *áway to quarrel, argue, fight 11087 PPh *áway to quarrel, argue, fight
24917 353 PMP *away₁ beckon with the hand
9803 Note: Also Sika gawe ‘beckon someone with the hand’.
24918 *away₂ face 354 PWMP *away₂ face
Note: Also Amis laway ‘face’, Melanau (Matu) jaway ‘face’, Tanjong yauai ‘face’. This item may be a chance resemblance, but the admittedly problematic comparison proposed in Blust (1970) has since been strengthened by the inclusion of Dairi-Pakpak Batak awe.
24919 355 Note: Also Tagalog aywán ‘don't know’, Manggarai aik ‘I don't know’, Lusi aaio ‘I don't know (uncertainty)’, Duke of York ai ‘interjection: I don't know’. Wolio shows loss of intervocalic *w in e.g. *kawit > kai ‘hook’, but Duke of York ai cannot regularly reflect *away, since this form would have become POc *awe.
24920 356 Note: Evidently distinct from *quay ‘rattan (generic)’. The meaning of this form remains somewhat in doubt.
24923 *awer rushing of water in a river 359 PWMP *awer rushing of water in a river
Note: Also Itbayaten aber ‘roaring’, Murik abah ‘rapids’, Sa'a awa ‘to roar, of flood’.
24924 360 24931 *aya₁ exclamation of annoyance, surprise, etc. 369 PAN *aya₁ exclamation of annoyance, surprise, etc.
Note: Also Ifugaw ayayá ‘exclamation to express one's astonishment or surprise’, Kayan ayah ‘exclamation of surprise’, Javanese ayah ‘exclamation of incredulity’. For expressive reasons PAn *aya probably bore a contrastive final accent. As with *ai, the form of this word undoubtedly is a product of the operation of language universals. However, this in itself need not disqualify it from use in reconstruction, since the same universal tendencies would have operated in the past as in the present.
24932 *aya₂ (gloss uncertain) 370 PAN *aya₂ (gloss uncertain)
8678 PMP *aya₂ father’s sister, father’s sister’s husband
Note: Also Pazeh yah ‘older sister’, Malagasy ray ‘father’, Sika ʔaa ‘aunt’, Kei ai-t ‘father, uncle’, Buli aye, aya-ke ‘mother! (vocative)’, Lau aia ‘father's sister, brother's child (woman speaking)’. Not to be confused with the loanword for ‘governess’ that appears as Tagalog aya ‘caretaker of children; governess’, Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong) aya-h ‘female house servant, housemaid’, Ngaju Dayak aya-ŋ ‘wet nurse, overseer of children, house servant’, Malay aya-h ‘Indian nurse or maid-servant. In contrast to amah ( 24925 361 PWMP *ayak₁ follow, walk after
24926 *ayak₂ sift, separate by sifting 362 PWMP *ayak₂ sift, separate by sifting [doublet: *qayag]
363 364 24927 365 PWMP *ayam plait, weave [doublet: *añam]
24928 *ayat threaten, confront violently 366 PWMP *ayat threaten, confront violently
24929 367 PPh *ayáw depart, separate from
24930 *ayaw raid, go headhunting 368 PWMP *ayaw raid, go headhunting [doublet: *kayaw]
Note: Possibly from *kayaw by independent analogical wrong-division of the affixed form *maŋ-kayaw/ ([maŋayaw]).
24933 *ayud copulate, have sexual intercourse 371 PWMP *ayud copulate, have sexual intercourse [doublet: *ayut]
Note: The basic notion of this term appears to have been that of a rocking, or rhythmically forward-and-backward movement, part of a semantic range often associated with medial *y in Austronesian languages (Blust 1988:57-58).
24934 372 PWMP *ayum block, hinder, obstruct
33184 11685 PWMP *ayun to swing, oscillate
33185 *áyun agree with, be in concord with 11686 PPh *áyun agree with, be in concord with
Note: Also Yakan mag-ayun ‘to agree with something (concept, statement) or someone; to consent’.
24936 *ayuŋ₁ monkey sp. 374 PWMP *ayuŋ₁ monkey sp.
24937 375 Note: Also Ifugaw ayóŋ ‘cradle, or what is used as a cradle; act of rocking; Maranao aioʔoŋ ‘earthquake’.
33424 *áyus to arrange, make something neat or proper 12128 PPh *áyus to arrange, make something neat or proper
24935 *ayut copulate, have sexual intercourse 373 PWMP *ayut copulate, have sexual intercourse [doublet: *ayud]
Note: The available glosses suggest that this term in PPh may have referred to sexual desire instead of or in addition to sexual intercourse. Wilkinson (1959)'s gloss for Malay (‘priapus’) is obscure; if the intended meaning was ‘priapism’ the semantic inference for PPh can be extended to PWMP.
24938 *azak summon others to join an activity 376 PWMP *azak summon others to join an activity
Note: Possibly a late innovation in western Indonesia spread as a result of borrowing from Malay or Javanese.
24939 *azuq term of address to males 377 PWMP *azuq term of address to males
Note: Also Puyuma (Tamalakaw) ariH ‘a man's male friend’, Paiwan (Western) qadju ‘friend (women's word)’. Systems of address terms used between members of the same sex are not uncommon in the languages of the Philippines and western Indonesia. The present cognate set suggests that such systems may have a long history.
a b c C d e g h i j k l m n N ñ ŋ o p q r R s S t u w y z
Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition
*a
Formosan Bunun
-a imperative suffix (Nihira 1983)
Kanakanabu
-a imperative suffix
Saaroa
-a object focus imperative
Rukai
-a imperative suffix (Li 1973:37, 286)
WMP Bikol
-a alternant command suffix for verbs taking -on in the infinitive
Aklanon
-a suffix attached to verbs of object focus #1 (with infix -in- or suffix -on) to express a command
Mansaka
-a suffix: active, imperative mode, object orientation
Javanese
-a imperative suffix
Sasak
-a pronominal suffix marking the object in imperatives
Mongondow
-a suffix that incites to action (no longer in general use)
OC Kapingamarangi
-a imperative (transitivizing) suffix
Formosan Atayal
-a suffix forming active subjunctive from the reduced stem, sometimes preceded by the prefix m-
WMP Cebuano
-a subjunctive direct passive affix
Javanese
-a subjunctive suffix
Wolio
-a verbal suffix: subjunctive
WMP Palauan
a article
OC Tigak
a article: a, the
Label
a definite and indefinite article
Tolai
a definite and indefinite article: the, a, an. It is prefixed to all common nouns, except those of a personal nature expressing relationships, parts of the body and person equipment, and also to adjectives; the possessive pronouns do not take it
Bugotu
a personal article, used with proper names; used also of particular persons and with relationship terms
Nggela
a personal article, with names of people; prefix to personal pronouns; prefixed to hanu, indefinite pronoun 'So-and-so'; personifies when prefixed to verbs
Lau
sa personal article, now obsolete
Sa'a
a personal article, used with all names of persons, and with certain nouns, and also with verbs; (a) precedes all personal names (except in the vocative), both native and foreign, male and female; (b) used with relationship terms to indicate a particular person, (c) the relationship terms huʔe 'wife', poro 'husband', keni 'woman, wife', mwela 'child', are not ordinarily preceded by a, but require the addition of a demonstrative; (d) in stories the article a may be prefixed to poro and huʔe, which may be translated 'Lord' and 'Lady'; (e) after the Melanesian idiom the noun ola, prefaced by the personal article a; a ola/, denotes 'So-and-so'; (f) the nouns kei, denoting a female, mwai, denoting a male, mwau, boy, are used with the personal article and a demonstrative; (g) the interrogative atei 'who, what person' is made up of a and tei 'interrogative'; (h) there is a regular use of a in personification; (i) used with a verb to indicate a descriptive title
Arosi
a personal article, used with names native or foreign; used with a common noun to personify; with verbs or adjectives to form a descriptive noun or nickname; and with pronouns; it seems to have been used once with names of places; also used with relationship terms
Fijian
a common article, used (1) before nouns: a tamata 'a man or the man'; (2) before possessives (really nouns): a noqu 'mine'; (3) before the preformative i
Niue
a particle used in the following cases: 1. before pronouns (except au), personal names, or local nouns when they are the subject of an intransitive verb; 2. before pronouns, personal nouns and names of months when they follow the prepositions ki and i; 3. before a common noun following (but not preceding) a possessive pronoun; 4. before a demonstrative pronoun drawing attention to a noun associated with an indefinite article and an adjective; 5. after falu (some), a is used in place of the ordinary article, either singular or plural
Nukuoro
a personal article
Anuta
a particle placed between a preposition and a personal pronoun or a proper name, but not before a common noun
Rarotongan
a relative pronoun used before personal pronouns and before proper nouns
Maori
a particle used 1. before names of persons, the pronouns wai and mea, and names of canoes, months, etc. a) when they stand as subject in a sentence, b) when they follow any of the prepositions i, ki, hei, kei, c) in explanatory clauses
WMP Nias
a conjunction: and (in counting and determining dimensions), then
OC Lou
a and
Pohnpeian
a conjunction: however, and
Lonwolwol
a and, (but)
Fijian
a conjunction: and or but
Hawaiian
a and, then, but (usually preceding verbs, whereas a me usually precedes nouns; a may also connect words translated by English adjectives
WMP Maranao
-a objective/obligatory suffix
Balinese
-a suffix indicating the third person (singular or plural) as a pronoun expressing the genitive, or the agent of a passive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb
Tontemboan
-a a short form of the pronominal suffix of the 3rd person, used with words that end in a consonant; it marks not so much the genitive relationship of the subject as the relationship of the word with -a to the word that follows it
Uma
-a 3sg. object (especially in future (gerundive) constructions)
Bare'e
-a polite form of -ña 'pronominal suffix of the 3rd person
Wolio
-a 3p. object suffix
OC Lakalai
-a 3rd person sg. object pronoun, suffixed to verb
Gedaged
-a a suffix added to certain finite verb forms to indicate that the third person plural is the undergoer of an action
Motu
-a 3sg. object suffix
Roviana
-a objective suffix
Eddystone/Mandegusu
-a 3sg. object suffix
Bugotu
-a suffixed pronoun of the object, added to verbs and prepositions; 3sg., him, her, it; serves as anticipatory object
Nggela
-a he, she, it, as suffixed to transitive verb
'Āre'āre
-a personal pronoun, 3sg., suffixed to verb (with or without verbal suffix) as object, and to prepositions as an anticipatory object, and used both of persons and things: him, her, it; where the object is collective the anticipatory object is used in the singular, and not in the plural
Arosi
-a personal pronoun: he, she, it; suffixed to verbs and prepositions
Gilbertese
-a personal pronoun object suffix of the 3rd person, joined to a transitive verb
Mota
-a personal pronoun, 3sg., suffixed as object to verb and preposition; him, her, it
Fijian
-a transitive suffix
Tongan
-a suffix forming transitive verbs, usually durational
Kapingamarangi
-a object marker for 3sg. pronoun
Rennellese
-a suffix with passive, transitivizing, and multiplicative meanings, in close juncture
Formosan Atayal
ni-aʔ 3sg. agent/possessor
Seediq (Truku)
ni-a his, hers
WMP Itbayaten
-na 3sg. agent and possessor
Isneg
-na his, her, its; he, she, it
Casiguran Dumagat
-na 3sg. agent and possessor
Sambal (Botolan)
-na 3sg. agent and possessor
Tagalog
ni-yá 3sg. agent and possessor
Bikol
-niyá 3sg. agent and possessor
Hanunóo
-niyá 3sg. agent and possessor
Murut (Timugon)
-no 3sg. agent and possessor
Kelabit
-neh 3sg. agent and possessor
Kenyah
-ña 3sg. agent
Bintulu
-ña 3sg. agent and possessor
Malay
-ña 3sg. agent and possessor
Simalur
-nia 3sg. possessor
Karo Batak
-na 3sg/pl. possessor
Toba Batak
-na 3sg. possessor
Angkola-Mandailing Batak
-nia 3sg. possessor
Enggano
-nia 3sg. possessor
Old Javanese
-nya 3sg. possessor
Javanese
-ne 3sg. possessor
Mongondow
-nia 3sg. possessor
Gorontalo
-lio 3sg. possessor
Muna
-no 3sg. possessor
Palauan
-l 3sg. suffix of inalienable possession, used with body parts, kinship relations, and the relationship of part to whole
Chamorro
-ña 3sg. agent and possessor (Topping 1973:225)
CMP Kambera
na- -na 3sg. pronoun; as a prefix na- signals the actor: na-laku 'he is going'; as a suffix -na marks a) possession: na ama-na 'his father', b) the agent in substantive constructions: mbàda laku-na-ka 'he has gone already', c) reference to past time: la nomu wula-na 'six months ago'
Rotinese
na- 3sg. subject pronoun
Vaikenu
-nia 3sg. possessor
Leti
-ne 3sg. possessor
Asilulu
-n 3sg. (human and non-human) genitive pronoun for inalienable possession
-ni 3sg. human genitive pronoun for inalienable possession
na- 3sg. (human and non-human) genitive pronoun for alienable possession
Buruese
-na his, her, its; an ending for anatomical nouns
OC Labu
na 3sg. possessive marker
Magori
-na 3sg. genitive; his, her
OC Penchal
-n 3sg. possessor
Loniu
-n 3sg. possessor
Seimat
-n 3sg. possessor
Wuvulu
-na 3sg. possessor
Tolai
-na 3sg. possessor (with nouns of a personal nature, as body parts)
Gedaged
-n 3sg. possessor
Gitua
-na 3sg. possessor
Zabana
-na 3sg. possessor, his/her
Bugotu
-ña 3sg. possessor
Lau
-na he, she, it, him, her, after nouns and prepositions, usually called a possessive pronoun
Sa'a
-nä 3sg. pronoun suffixed to nouns of a certain class, the equivalent of the genitive (nime 'hand': nima-na 'his hand'); noun ending used with nouns denoting relationship
Arosi
-na 3sg. possessor; his, her, its, with certain classes of nouns; suffix to noun of relationship
Gilbertese
-na 3sg. possessor
Mokilese
-n 3sg. possessor
Chuukese
-n 3sg. possessive pronoun; of him, her, it (used in partitive constructions in many expressions where it would not appear in English, as in expressions of time, but not consistently
Mota
-na 3sg. possessor, suffixed to a class of nouns and to one preposition
Lonwolwol
-n 3sg. possessor
Fijian
-na 3sg. possessor
WMP Kapampangan
a introductory exclamation like English Oh or Well
Aklanon
a exclamation of discovery; "ah" (with high intonation)
Tontemboan
a exclamation of surprise (short for ya)
Mongondow
a exclamation capable of expressing joy or amazement, as well as fear and shock
Gorontalo
a expression of satisfaction or ridicule
Bare'e
aa an exclamation which expresses a variety of emotions, above all uncertainty, amazement or annoyance
Mandar
a Oh! (exclamation expressing surprise at an unexpected occurrence, and as a response to a question or explanation)
Makassarese
a exclamation: ha! See what I told you!
CMP Manggarai
a (at the beginning of a sentence) ah!; exclamation of surprise, contempt, etc.
Rembong
a exclamation: ah!
Ngadha
a interjection: ah! oh!
Kambera
á interjection of surprise or terror
OC Tigak
aa exclamation: ah!
Mono-Alu
ā exclamation
Bugotu
a exclamation: oh! used in address
Formosan Atayal
aaa maybe; hesitation syllable
WMP Pangasinan
a interjection marking hesitation, agreement, disagreement, etc.
CMP Asilulu
a hesitation word: umm, uh
OC Nukuoro
aa the sound of hesitation noise
Formosan Kavalan
a nominative marker or linker between the attribute and head noun of an NP
Pazeh
a co-ordinate particle (links head and attribute)
Amis
a a connecting particle with some of the meaning of "and"; modifying particle
Thao
a linking particle, ligature, mark of lexical, phrasal, or clausal attribution or modification
Paiwan
a equational construction marker for noun phrase
WMP Itbayaten
a connective particle; adjective-noun connective, clause connective
Pangasinan
a linking particle, uniting adjectives or descriptive phrases with verbs and nouns, relative sentences to main sentences, etc.
Palauan
a ligature, linking particle
OC Label
a ligature between nouns; also binds possessive pronouns and adjectives with nouns; genitive particle
WMP Tagalog
abá emphatic denial; sudden reproach; simple surprise; hail!
abah-ín take notice of someone
Hanunóo
ʔabá an exclamation of surprise, admiration, wonder; the more commonly used form is ʔabaʔabá
Aklanon
abá(h) an exclamation expressing strong disbelief: Really? Ah, go on!
Cebuano
abá exclamation of pleasure and surprise
Maranao
aba ah -- exclamation of surprise
Subanen/Subanun
aba alas!
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
aba expression of warning to stop an action
Toba Batak
abá exclamation: ah!, oh!, alas!
Formosan Atayal
aba father. Used in direct address only; otherwise i-aba (< i 'prefix for persons' + aba)
WMP Tiruray
ʔaba-y father
Ngaju Dayak
aba father (used by and with small children)
Malagasy
ába father, chiefly used by children
Malay
aba-h father, papa
Sundanese
aba-h father (rare)
Wolio
abha father (term of address), daddy
CMP Bimanese
aba father (used only within the family circle)
WMP Bontok
ʔabá carry on one's back, as a child or sick person
Kankanaey
abá carry on the back (children are ordinarily carried in that way)
Aklanon
abá(h) to get, climb up on one's back
WMP Kankanaey
abág put their money together; enter, get into partnership with somebody
Cebuano
ábag give material help, help do work
WMP Yami
avaka a plant: Manila hemp
Itbayaten
avaka fiber-producing banana tree. Musa sp.
Ilokano
abaká Manila hemp
Ifugaw
abaká Manila hemp
Kapampangan
abaka the abaca plant, fiber, or cloth
Tagalog
abaká hemp
Bikol
ábaka abaca, Manila hemp: Musa textilis
Hanunóo
ʔabaká Manila hemp, abacá (Musa textilis Ne'e)
Aklanon
abaká(h) abaca fibres, Manila hemp: Musa textilis
Aborlan Tagbanwa
abaka abaca, Manila hemp
Maranao
waka Musa textilis Nee: abaca, Manila hemp
Tiruray
wogo an abaca
Tboli
wogu uncultivated abaca, usually not good to strip
WMP Ilokano
abal-ábal kind of brown burrowing June beetle or June bug. Many people eat it.
Keley-i
abal a black and yellow striped beetle
Tiruray
ʔabal-ʔabal kind of scarab beetle, Leucopholis irrorata Chevrolat
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
abála to bother, to disturb, to delay, to be occupied
Pangasinan
man-abála to be busy or occupied; to annoy, be a disturbance
Ayta Abellan
abala activity; doings; labor, productive work (especially physical work done for wages); to cause annoyance in; disturb, especially by minor irritations
Kapampangan
abalá bother, worry
Tagalog
abála inconvenience; bother; trouble; interruption; disturbance
Hanunóo
ʔabála molestation, bother
ma-ʔabála to be bothered, be molested
WMP Ilokano
abáŋ to wait for
abaŋ-an to ambush
Kapampangan
ambaŋ-an obstacle, impediment to passage
Tagalog
abáŋ person asked to wait and watch for someone or some vehicle to come or pass by
Bikol
mag-abáŋ wait, watch for
maŋ-abáŋ keep watch, keep vigil
abáŋ-abáŋ a hindrance (referring to a person who is always in the way)
Aklanon
ábaŋ obstruct, block, hinder; waylay, ambush
Lun Dayeh
abaŋ an ambush of an animal or enemy; a blocking, a guarding
Kelabit
abaŋ an ambush
Kayan
avaŋ an ambush; to ambush
Karo Batak
ambaŋ restrain or hold back with outstretched arms, as a runaway horse
Balinese
ambaŋ hinder, interfere with
CMP Komodo
abaŋ cross-beam
Manggarai
ambaŋ obstruct, block the way
Rembong
ambaŋ restrain, hold back with extended hands; to catch (a horse) with lasso
Sika
abaŋ-papak block the road, cut off the way
Kambera
amba check, stop, hold back (as a horse); to hinder
WMP Bikol
maŋ-abáŋ keep watch, keep vigil
Lun Dayeh
ŋ-abaŋ lay an ambush, lay in wait for an enemy or animal; block, guard (soccer)
Kelabit
ŋ-abaŋ to ambush someone
Karo Batak
ŋ-ambaŋ-i to restrain or hold back
Balinese
ŋ-ambaŋ-in to hinder, interfere with
WMP Kelabit
abaŋ ditch, canal
Kayan
abaŋ trench, ditch, excavation
Malay
abaŋ-an water conduit of split pinaŋ stem
Balinese
abaŋ gutter, drain-pipe, channel
abaŋ-an channel, groove
Sasak
abaŋ-an drain-pipe from roof, aqueduct
WMP Kelabit
ŋ-abaŋ make a ditch
Balinese
ŋ-abaŋ make a gutter or channel
WMP Ilokano
ábaŋ rent, rental, hire, interest
abáŋ-an to rent, hold under a lease, hire
Bontok
ʔábaŋ to rent; the amount of rent that one pays
Pangasinan
ábaŋ rent, interest
Cebuano
ábaŋ rent; hire a prostitute; make an offering to a supernatural being for the use of land which is thought to be in his possession
Kadazan Dusun
t-ambaŋ fare (on bus, etc.); freight, freightage, passage money
WMP Hanunóo
ʔábat leading by the hand
Cebuano
ábat hold on to something fixed to support oneself
abat-án railing in the shape of a ladder for baby to cling to when he starts to walk
Iban
ambat lend a hand (to hold steady)
WMP Isneg
ábat a spirit who brings sickness to people whoever they are and wherever they abide
Bontok
ʔábat perform a ceremony for someone who has had a spirit encounter; such a ceremony
Cebuano
abát any supernatural being or human with supernatural powers which shows itself in an unexpected and startling way
Tausug
abat a mild illness caused by evil spirits or dead people (usually a headache with fever that is cured by simply uttering some magic verses to drive away the evil spirits)
CMP Ngadha
abha cut oneself, wound
Buruese
abat wound
SHWNG Buli
yabat wound, be wounded
WMP Palawano
abat to get out (shard, sickness), remove something causing pain
Tiruray
ʔabat any instrument used to pry or scoop out something; to probe, to scoop out using a tool
Tboli
abat to dig out, as a sliver or thorn; for the sick to go to a traditional healer to remove a curse or sickness encountered
WMP Malagasy
avo high, lofty, eminent
Singhi Land Dayak
omu high
Javanese
ambo hoist sail
OC Arosi
saho-saho high, lofty; tilt up, tip up, elevate
WMP Ilokano
ag-ábay to stand, etc. side by side; to sing in unison
Kankanaey
ábay to use like a friend; be the companion of; be friendly to; take a liking to; make very much of
Casiguran Dumagat
abay stay parallel with (as for two people to walk side by side, or for workers harvesting in a field to stay together in a row, rather than one getting ahead of the others)
Pangasinan
ábay side, proximity; to approach, go near person or object close by; put beside
Kapampangan
ambay couple, pair (Bergaño 1860)
abe accompany; live together, stay together; friend, companion (used as a term of address)
Tagalog
ábay best man in a wedding; maid-of-honor; escort
Bikol
ábay accompany one another; participate in something together; best man, brides maid
Aklanon
ábay sponsor (at wedding or baptism)
Agutaynen
abay for people to sit or walk side by side; for boats to travel side by side; bridesmaid
Cebuano
abáy move along together with something moving; bridesmaid or best man
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
avey walk together shoulder to shoulder; proceed side by side
Mansaka
abáy be abreast
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
abək mat
Beta
ambok mat
OC Lakalai
abi take, catch, get
Gedaged
abi take hold of, grab, seize, grasp, clutch, take
Numbami
-ambi hold, get, take
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka
abi take hold of something, grasp something
WMP Ilokano
ábig to copulate (usually applied to adultery)
Mansaka
abid copulate, engage in sexual intercourse
WMP Ilokano
abígay throw a blanket over the shoulder
Cebuano
ambiláy carry something with a strap slung over the shoulder
WMP Yami
avios k.o. plant: Acalypha grandis
Bontok
bilus k.o. plant: Acalypha angatensis Blco. (Madulid 2001)
WMP Maloh
ambit climb, clamber up
Proto-Sangiric
*abit climb a tree
Sangir
awiʔ climb
WMP Cebuano
abuábu kind of fish
Malay (Jakarta)
ikan abu-abu fish sp.
Makassarese
au-au edible seafish, shining white and unspotted, the mackerel: Scomber neglectus
WMP Hanunóo
ʔabuwát tall, high, referring to people or objects; height
Kalamian Tagbanwa
abwat long
Palawan Batak
ʔabwát large; long
Ida'an Begak
buat long
Berawan (Long Terawan)
kebeiʔ long
Berawan (Long Jegan)
kuβit long
Miri
bét long
Kenyah
buat long
Kenyah (Long Wat)
buat long (of objects)
Bintulu
(bə)bat long
WMP Ilokano
y-abúloy to donate to charity; contribute
Casiguran Dumagat
abúluy to contribute, to give aid to
Pangasinan
abóloy readily allow or agree to
Ayta Abellan
aboloy aid; alms; offering; money or assistance given to the poor
Tagalog
abúloy aid; help; alms; contribution; donation; offering
ábuluy-án mutual aid
abulúy-an to give a specific person, persons or cause some help
Bikol
abúloy contribution to charity
Hanunóo
ʔabúluy donation, gift, grant
Agutaynen
aboloy food or money donated or given to a family who has just lost their house or lost a loved one
WMP Ilokano
ambón assemble; concourse
ambon-en to join in fighting against the enemy
Mentawai
abut collect, gather
WMP Tagalog
ambuwáŋ large beetle
Kelabit
buaŋ beetle (generic)
CMP Ngadha
fuʔa kind of beetle, grub, larva in palm wine
Sika
boʔaŋ larva of a caterpillar
WMP Cebuano
abúg dust; become dusty; turn into dust
Manobo (Dibabawon)
abug dust
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
ambur dust, broken bits
WMP Ilokano
ábug drive, drive away, incite
Isneg
ma-ábug be driven away
Bontok
ʔábul chase away chickens or animals, using a stick; the stick so used
Kankanaey
ábu drive away, turn out, expel
Ifugaw
ábul chase, repel, drive away
Ifugaw (Batad)
ābul frighten away chickens, rice birds, pigs, flies in any effective manner
Ibaloy
abol to drive, chase something away, as animals that are causing disturbance or damage
Cebuano
ábug chase, drive, drive away
Maranao
abog scatter, drive away
Manobo (Dibabawon)
abug drive away, drive out, chase
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
avug to drive, as animals; drive away, force out
Mansaka
abog drive away, chase away
WMP Iban
abus ashes
CMP Manggarai
awus ash at the tip of a cigarette, etc.; sparks
Rembong
awos spark, ashes
WMP Malagasy
ávotra plucked up, rooted up, eradicated
Banjarese
ambut tear off coconut husk
Balinese
abut pull out, pull up; raise (anchor)
Sasak
abut pull out (as plants from the ground); draw in, as a kite
Proto-Minahasan
*abut pull out
Tontemboan
awut to weed, pull up or out
Bare'e
awu clear the ground of weeds and bushes
ma-awut-i a piece of weeded ground
OC Nggela
avu to weed
'Āre'āre
rahu uprooted; pull out
WMP Palawano
ambut arse, behind
Miri
abut buttocks
Kayan
avut buttocks, bottom; the base or lower part of anything
WMP Itbayaten
in-avoyo molasses, juice of sugarcane; sugarcane juice gotten after milling
paŋŋ-avoyw-an container for molasses
Isneg
abúyo ~ ag-abuyó-wan a bamboo tube used to transfer bāsi (rum) from the brewery to the jarss something (as ‘pass the salt’)
Bontok
ʔi-abúyu to boil for an extended period, of sugarcane juice in the preparation of sugarcane wine
WMP Kadazan Dusun
asaŋ dove, pigeon
Kayan
asaŋ a bird of one of the pigeon species
Iban
acaŋ domestic pigeon
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
asaŋ domestic pigeon
Lampung
acaŋ-acaŋ dove, pigeon
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
aTav a cover (in general)
WMP Tagalog
atáb covering, roofing, or siding of palm leaves
Iban
antap cover, patch, lining, backing
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
a-Tas high
maka-Tas on
WMP Tagalog
taʔás height; physical stature (esp. of human body); eminence, nobility
Aklanon
táʔas become taller, grow taller; raise, elevate
pa-táʔas let get taller, let grow
ka-táʔas height, tallness
Hiligaynon
táʔas tall
mag-táʔas grow tall; raise, increase
Cebuano
taʔás long, tall, high; grow, appear long; add more length, height; do something in a long way; rise in temperature
ha-taʔás very long; high
pa-taʔás raise, lengthen, increase the length; upward
Mansaka
taʔas locative, above, up
Tiruray
taʔah long
Supan
ar-atas high
Ngaju Dayak
atas on, upon
Iban
atas upon, above, over, (of position) upper
Jarai
ataih far
Rhade
taih distant, far
Malay
atas position over or above
Acehnese
ateuëh up, above; high
Simalur
atae high
Toba Batak
atas above, on top
di-atas above
Simalungun Batak
atas above, on top
Angkola-Mandailing Batak
atas above, over
Mentawai
atā tall, high
Lampung
atas above
Madurese
attas high; above
Sasak
atas high; above
ber-atas go upward
per-atas raise, elevate (of terrain)
Sumbawanese
atas above
Sangir
ataseʔ raise oneself up
Proto-Minahasan
*atas above, on (top)
Tondano
atas above
CMP Kambera
ata long, tall; high
Rotinese
ata the heavens, the top (of); above, on top of
OC Lakalai
-ata up
o-ata above
g-o-ata go up, ascend
Motu
lata length; tall, long
lata na-i upon
lata-lata long, tall (intensive)
Kosraean
yat eastern part of a village
Marshallese
ej formant in place names; upper; eastern
Chuukese
aas upper part, top, summit; eastern side; above (vertically)
Puluwat
yáh tall, high, upper, easterly
Woleaian
-yas(a) up, upside
yeriule-yas south-southeast
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
i-Tas up, above
WMP Bikol
i-taʔás above, over; upstairs
mag-i-taʔás lift, raise, hoist, elevate
[Malay
di-atas above, upon]
WMP Tagalog
ma-taʔás tall
Aklanon
ma-táʔas tall, high
Toba Batak
m-atas ari midday (lit. 'the sun is high/above')
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-atas climb up, ascend
Sangir
maŋ-ataseʔ raise oneself up
OC Mailu
ata-na top; up
Motu
lata-na the top
Chuukese
asa-n above him; its upper side
Formosan Bunun
atađ kill
is-atađ be killed with something (Nihira 1983)
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
ki-n-aTay (imp) die
mi-a-n-aTay die
pi-a-n-aTay kill
WMP Ifugaw
até word-base of all the words that convey the meaning of death, die, kill, try to kill by fighting
Casiguran Dumagat
atɛ die; dead; death
Tiruray
ʔatey dying
Lun Dayeh
ate death
ŋ-ate kill
Kelabit
ate death
ŋ-ate kill
Tunjung
pak-ate kill
Nias
ate-la burial place for the dead
Sangir
ate die
kuk-ate be dying
met-ate be dying
Banggai
maŋa-k-ate kill
baʔa-k-ate commit suicide
pooa-k-ate kill each other, fight to the death, duel, go to war
Padoe
mate to die; dead
OC Lele
i-met he is dying
kin-i-mat he is dead
Mengen
mati to die
Petats
mat to die
Takuu
mate to die; death; corpse
Vatrata
maʔ dead
Formosan Thao
k-acay a curse expressing anger toward someone: Drop dead! Go to Hell!
WMP Kankanaey
adi k-atéy not to die
Ifugaw
k-até death
Kiput
k-ataːy kill
sə-k-ataːy sədiriʔ kill oneself, commit suicide
Melanau (Mukah)
k-atay stop, as an engine that was running
k-en-atay was stopped, as an engine
Sangir
k-ate die! (imperative)
CMP Bimanese
h-ade kill; extinguish (a fire)
Formosan Thao
k-acay-an lose someone through death, be bereaved
WMP Ifugaw
k-atay-án time of somebody's death, manner in which somebody dies
Totoli
ka-ate-an death
Formosan Saisiyat
masay die
Thao
m-acay die, be dead
Bunun
m-atađ die; be killed
m-atađ vali eclipse of the sun
Tsou
m-cói die
hu-m-cói dead man
CMP Luang
n-mati to die; dead
WMP Ilokano
m-atáy die, expire, perish, cease, become extinct, be (sick, tired) to death, become indifferent, stop
Isneg
m-atáy die
matay-ān relative of a dead person; having a dead person among (them)
Itawis
m-atáy die
Kankanaey
matéy die, depart this life, decease, expire, go out
Ifugaw
m-até he/she will die
Kapampangan
m-até die
Tagalog
pag-ka-matáy death
má-ma-matay assassin
Bikol
matáy may I die; an oath taken whereby one swears to take his own life if he is not telling the truth
Hanunóo
mátay death
maty-ún killing
m-ar-aty-ún slaughter, killing on a large scale
Aklanon
m-atáy die
mama-matáy those destined to die
Hiligaynon
m-atáy die, pass away
Cebuano
m-atáy die; stop functioning (as a watch); for the moon to be in its invisible phase; exclamation of displeasure
kala-maty-án a fatal spot on the body
Maranao
m-atay die
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
m-atey die
hi-matey kill
Tboli
m-atay die
Blaan (Koronadal)
m-ati dead
Rungus Dusun
matay die
Kadazan Dusun
matay die, expire, breathe one's last
Kelabit
m-ate die; dead
Miri
matayh die; dead
Kenyah
m-atay dead
Kayan
matey dead
Kiput
m-ataːy die; dead
Melanau (Mukah)
m-atay die; dead
Tunjung
m-ate die
Murung
m-atoy die
Siang
m-atoy die
Ngaju Dayak
m-atäy die; dead
Malagasy
m-áty dead, gone out, as a lamp or a fire; in danger; set, as the sun; beaten in a game
máty-héna benumbed, torpid, deprived of sensation
máti-ny hiańy a phrase used to express the setting of one's heart upon something: very desirous of, eagerly wishing for; lit. simply killed by it
Dusun Witu
matey to die; dead
Iban
mati dead; set (of the sun); fast, firm, tight, immovable
Cham
matai die, dead
Moken
matay die; dead
Malay
mati death; extinction; perish
me-mati-kan cause to die
harga mati fixed price
Bahasa Indonesia
mati die; dead; not having ever lived; various figurative senses, including: break up, of a gathering; quiet or ceased (wind); not moving any longer (machine parts); waterless (wells or springs); numb (skin); extinguished (lamp, fire, etc.); dead-end (path, etc.); fixed or agreed so that it cannot change (price, agreement, etc.); fallen quiet (as marketplace); not used any longer (as a language); set (sun)
mati beranak die in childbirth
mati kutu(ña) unable to do anything any more
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
mate die; dead; blocked path; go out (fire); new moon; paralyzed
Toba Batak
m-ate die; dead; go out (fire); die down, cease (wind); conclude (fight)
m-ate dalan i the path-road cannot be used any longer
mate ma ho a curse
mar-mate-an die in throngs
pa-mate-hon kill someone
bulan mate new moon
Nias
mate die; become paralyzed; dry up, wither; extinguish
mate dõdõ make a deep impression on something
a-mate-la corpse
Mentawai
matay dead; death; die; kill; go out (cigarette); set (sun); become feeble (penis)
Rejang
mateui die
mateui bilai sunset
Lampung
m-ati dead
Sundanese
ŋa-mati-ken kill
Old Javanese
m(a)-ati die; dead
sumur mati dried-up well
Javanese
mati dead; die; inert
mati garing die of thirst
mati sabil die in childbirth
Madurese
mate die; dead
Balinese
m-ati die, be quenched (fire); dead
Sasak
mate die; dead
[mate ŋ-anak die in childbirth]
mate seset suicide
mate-ʔ kill
mate-aŋ kill
Tontemboan
m-ate die; kill; a curse: may you die!
Mongondow
m-atoy die, go out (fire, light)
Dampelas
ma-ate die; dead
Banggai
mate die
Uma
m-ate dead; die
Bare'e
mate die; dead; also used of something that has stopped moving or working; go out (fire, torch); stop spinning (top); stop moving (hands of a clock, the wind)
mate mpoana die in childbirth
Tae'
mate die; dead; disastrous, struck by misfortune
mate deata what is meted out by the gods: die a natural death; lose (in playing dice); numb, asleep (of limbs)
mate poso die suddenly
mate ki-anak die in childbirth
to mate deceased person, corpse; worthless
Koroni
mate to die, dead
Mandar
m-ate die, pass away; dead
Makassarese
mate dead; die; new moon; paralyzed (of limbs); having lost its force (as glue that is no longer adhesive); beaten (in a game); completely done (of a matter)
beraŋ mate worn-out bush knife
jaraŋ mate horse that doesn't want to run any more
takka luppa mate-mate totally forget
ka-mate-i die somewhere; die with someone
mate-i aŋiŋ-a there is no wind, the wind has died
Wolio
mate dead; paralyzed; out (of light or fire); asleep (of hand or foot); death
mo-mate-na deceased person
bawabawa mate pregnant (because an unborn child is not yet alive)
Muna
mate die; dead
Popalia
mate die; dead
hoko-mate kill
Palauan
mad die; (electricity, etc.) go out; go numb
uləko-ád dead, extinguished, paralyzed
oaməko-ád kill; extinguish; put out
məkə-mád war
Chamorro
matai dead; corpse; die
matai-ñalaŋ famine, die of hunger
CMP Tetun (Dili)
mate to die
CMP Bimanese
m-ade kill; die out (of a fire)
Donggo
made die, dead
Komodo
mate dead; died; the late
Manggarai
mata die; dead; extinguished; lose in a game
mata wulaŋ lunar eclipse
Ngadha
mata die; dead; become poor, decline
Keo
mata to die
Riung
mata to die
Li'o
mata die, dead
Sika
mate die; dead
mate-ŋ numb, of a foot or arm
Lamaholot
mata dead, deceased
Solorese
mata to die; dead
Kédang
mate die, dead
Waiyewa
mate to die
Lamboya
mate die, dead
Anakalangu
mati to die
Kambera
meti die; dead; go out (fire); be eclipsed (sun)
meti mariŋu die a cool (natural) death
meti mbanahu die a hot (unnatural) death (as when dying in an accident)
marapu mameti corpse, cadaver
Hawu
made dead
Dhao/Ndao
made die, dead
Rotinese
mate die; dead; go out (of a light); still (of the sea when becalmed); eclipse of the sun or moon
beli-na mate the price is fixed
(hataholi) mate nulak one who dies young
mate laʔas die of hunger
mate-k be dead, be overcome (in a game)
na-mate kill
Tetun
mate die; extinguish (fire); wither, die (plants); stop or cease (machinery); dead, stopped
mate-k dead, dormant, without life; dry (of plants)
mate-n any animal (or bird) which is the loser in a fight, and by custom is condemned to death
ai-n mate-k pins and needles in the leg
kuda isi-n mate-k a quiet horse (easy to ride)
mate-r kill, slay
Vaikenu
matɛ to die
Galoli
mate to die
Erai
mate die; dead; sleeping (of members of the body)
mate ēr be parched with thirst (to death)
mate klar starve
Tugun
mate die, dead
East Damar
m-mat to die
West Damar
moto die
Leti
mati die; dead
wulla (lera) n-mati the moon (sun) is eclipsed
ri-mata corpse
Wetan
mati dead; die
mati wnoa hereafter, abode of the dead
Selaru
mati die
Yamdena
mate die, go out (fire, light); finished, terminated, of a matter; (in some words) very, extremely , exceptionally
Kei
māt die, go out (fire), stop (machinery); be defeated (in a game); be overgrown, of a path; abate (wind); becalmed (sea); dried up (spring)
Kamarian
mata dead
Paulohi
mata dead; die
mata-e die of something
mata-e lala bleed to death
Alune
mata dead, die
mata-le dead
Hitu
mata die, dead
mata to die; dead
Asilulu
mata dead; die; lose consciousness; end in a receptacle without markers in the joŋka game (game language)
Buruese
mata die, faint, pass out; stop blowing (wind); by any means, in any way
mata-k fulfilled, established, ready, finished; die of (as cold); ascertain; definitely; completely; to death
mata-t dead
Soboyo
mate die; dead
meseʔ m-an-ate cook until well done, cook thoroughly
SHWNG Gimán
mot to die; dead
Sawai
mɔt to die
Buli
mat dead; die, also said of a light going out, and of a wound, ulcer, or boil that has healed
amcait matmat deathly afraid, scared to death
Mayá
ꞌma¹²t to die
Biga
mat to die; dead
As
maʔ dead
Minyaifuin
-mat to die
Moor
maʔa to die
OC Lou
mat die, dead
Titan
mate-y die, dead
ku ta-mate-y kill it!
Andra
met to die; dead
Leipon
i met he is dead
Ponam
met die, dead
Bipi
mak die, dead
Seimat
mat dead
Wuvulu
maʔe die, dead
Aua
maʔe die, dead
Kaniet
me-mat to die; dead
Mussau
mate dead, die
e mate la he is dead
Tigak
mat die
Nalik
mat to die; dead
Mendak
mare die, dead
Tanga
met die; affix with a superlative adverbial effect: completely, very, utter, too much
Label
mat die; be dead
Tolai
mat die; dead; extinguished, go out (of light or fire); numb; intensive particle and adverb: very, greatly, extremely
Bali (Uneapa)
mate to die
Arop
i-mata to die
Biliau
te maʔat to kill
Maleu
mate die
Kove
mate to die
Lakalai
mate out, of a fire
Kairiru
myat die; dead, deceased
Ali
miət to die; dead
Manam
mate die, suffer
mate-lako die
madidi mate feel cold
tole mate be hungry
Gedaged
mat die, expire, pass away, yield up the ghost, perish, stop (motor), go out (fire); long, yearn, crave, hanker, desire, love, like, pine, pant for, languish for, care, want, die (for), lust after
Gitua
mate die
Numbami
mande die, faint, be paralyzed, long for
Wampar
mar die; dead
Suau
mate to die; dead
Motu
mase die; adverb of intensity
mase-anitu die from disease, not a violent death
Mekeo (East)
mae die, dead
Kilivila
mata dead; be out, come to an end; extinguish
Saliba
mate die, dead
Tubetube
mate soundly, as in sleeping soundly
i keno mate he is sound asleep
Sudest
mare death; die
Haku
mete to die; dead
Piva
mate to die
Banoni
mate die
Uruava
mate to die; dead
Torau
mate die, dead
Mono-Alu
mate die, be sick, be tired
Hoava
mate to die; dead
Roviana
mate die; dead
Eddystone/Mandegusu
mate dead, weak, sick, rotten; death, illness resulting in death; die
Nggela
mate without movement; bedridden, paralyzed; numb, of a limb asleep; unconscious, fainted; dead; death; kill; extinguish; out, of a light; fighting man, soldier; enemy; ready, prepared; completely, quite; out, at cricket; withered, dry, as a branch
Kwaio
mae die; dead; fight; death; blow (n.); finished, without residual obligations, of a financial transaction; unconscious; want very badly, very much
mae-sia die from, completely, to the end
Lau
mae without motion, still; unconscious, numb, paralyzed; to faint; die; stop (of a clock), go out (of a light); be eclipsed, of sun or moon; tired out, weak, very ill, ready for rest; war; rainbow
mae-la danger
mae-la-na dying, death; death feast
mae-li kill
'Āre'āre
māe unconscious; faint; ill; die; paralyzed; numb; war
māe-si be ill of, die of
māe-ta death feast, memorial feast
ʔāre māe weapons, instruments for killing
āsi māe the calm sea in lagoons and passages, as opposed to āsi mauri, the open sea
Sa'a
mae die; ill; become unconscious; numb; eclipsed, of moon; a fighting column; enemies; war; weapons; used with 3p. possessor and ni genitive to denote excess
mae apolo paralyzed
mae-ha sickness
mae-la death
Arosi
mae numb, unable to move, ill; be eclipsed (of moon); be unconscious, faint; die; death; enemy; fighting party; weapons; lee side of an island (where the sea is maé)
mae-ta(-na) death feast
Sikaiana
mate to die
Gilbertese
mate death, disappearance, extinction; dead, defunct, paralyzed, stopped, extinct, tired, unconscious, lost, cancelled, taken, blocked (in games), known by heart, memorized; free, tranquil; calm (as the sea); die, go out (fire, etc.), stop (clock, etc.), perish, faint, succumb; extenuated, worn out, dead tired
mate-akina desire, love
mate-n tai eclipse of sun
mate-n namakaina eclipse of moon
Kosraean
misɛ death; die
Marshallese
mej dead; numb; death; disease; illness; peril; plague; wrath
mej ābwin palsy; paralyzed
Chuukese
má die, lose consciousness, lose sensation, become paralyzed; (fig.) be overcome with fatigue, hunger, or other physiological want; be extinguished (of a light), stop (of an engine)
máá death; loss of consciousness; collapse; paralysis; disease, illness, sickness, pestilence
mááse-n orphan (death parted)
Puluwat
má die, be dead, dying, stricken, paralyzed, very sick; be killed; stop working, as a machine; death
Woleaian
mas death; dead person; (be) dead, die; disease, ailment, sickness
Ulithian
mese to die
Mota
mate die, faint and appear to die; dead
Mosina
ga-mat dead
Lakona
ga-met dead
Sakao
nɛð dead
Nokuku
mate to die; dead
Malmariv
mate dead
Lametin
mate dead
Amblong
mat to die
no-mat dead
Aore
m̈ate die, dead
Tangoa
m̈ate die; dead
Raga
mate die; dead
Apma
mat to die
te-mat dead
Atchin
mi-mats die, dead
Rano
me-meč dead
Lingarak
-mas to die
Leviamp
-m̋a to die; dead
Avava
mat to die; dead
Axamb
mæc dead
Maxbaxo
ŋo-mæč dead
Lonwolwol
mɛr die; (be) dead; numb, unconscious, apparently dead
mɛra-n death
Southeast Ambrym
mæt die
mæte-n death
Namakir
mat die; dead
Nakanamanga
mate die; dead
Pwele
mate dead
Efate (South)
mat to die; dead
Ura
mis to die
Sie
-mah to die; dead
Anejom
mas die; dead
Canala
mɛ extinguished, dead
Fijian
mate death, disease, sickness; to die, be sick
Tongan
mate die; sometimes used in the sense of stunned or quite unconscious; (of fire or light) go out, be out; (of a boat) be sunk or wrecked; (of a volcano) be extinct; (of wind) die down, cease; (of sun or moon) be eclipsed; (of clock or engine, etc.) to stop, not to be going; paralyzed (as a limb); dead; death; be utterly sick and tired of; be overcome or carried away with (laughter, weeping, desire, sleepiness, fear, etc.)
Niue
mate die, die out (as a fire); stop (as an engine); be desirous of, need intensely, be ill with deprivation; be destroyed
tā-mate kill
Samoan
mate die (of animals, plants, fire, etc.)
ta-mate kill (animal or plant); (of a coco-nut tree, etc.) strip of leaves so as to kill
Tuvaluan
mate die; dead; death; funeral wake
taa mate kill; switch off
Kapingamarangi
made die; deceased; death; paralyzed
Nukuoro
made dead (of plants only); numb, paralyzed; go out (of a fire)
Rennellese
mate dead, dying, unconscious, faint, exhausted, paralyzed; be low tide; be killed or dead, as an engine; be extinguished or out, as a fire; to have stopped, as a clock; to be the dark of the moon; death, sorrow, sound of weeping (poetic)
Anuta
mate die
Rarotongan
mate general term for death: disaster, calamity, danger, defeat, ruin, oppression, hurt, injury, adversity, unconsciousness, subsidence, desire; out, as of a person being caught out when playing cricket; defeat, as in playing a game of cards or other game; a funeral burial; dead, oppressed, unconscious; extinguished, as a light; in lack of, in want of; loss of, as of vitality or vigor overcome with any emotions; overcome in a contest; deep emotion, as of a person or persons being deeply in love; calmed down, subsided; moving slowly or slack, as of the tide, slack water; beaten, as in any contest; benumbed, deadened, paralyzed; dried up, as the water of a stream; withered, as the foliage of trees; die, lose life, perish
Maori
mate dead; extinguished; sick, ill, unconscious; injured, damaged, suffering; in want of, lacking; overcome with any emotion, the emotion being expressed; deeply in love; calmed down, subsided; moving slowly, slack; completed, finished, accomplished; caught; death; sickness, injury, wound; danger, defeat, calamity; desire; company of mourners
Hawaiian
make die; defeated, killed, unfortunate; to faint; death, fainting, danger of death, peril, destruction, misfortune; kill; deathly, deadly, faint, deceased, late; obsolete; poisonous; desire, want, to want
OC Nggela
mate-a kill
Hawaiian
make-a passive/imperative of make: be defeated, be killed
WMP Toba Batak
mate-an lose someone through death
Banggai
mate-an death
Tae'
mate-an (of a possession) get rid of, damage something so that it becomes worthless
Makassarese
mate-aŋ declare someone dead
Wolio
mate-a (case of) death, decease
banua mate-a a bereaved house
OC Roviana
mate-ana large meteor (universally associated with the death of a leader)
Lau
mae-a death, sickness
Mota
mate-a death, dying
OC Kwaio
mae-ŋa death; war
Sa'a
mae-ŋa sickness, death
Niue
mate-aŋa death
Rennellese
mate-ʔaŋa death
Maori
mate-ŋa time, circumstances, etc. of death
OC Seimat
i mate-n he is dying
Mono-Alu
mate-na dead
Roviana
mate-na die; dead
WMP Aklanon
paka-matáy commit suicide
Cebuano
paka-matáy die for a cause; commit suicide; allow someone to die
Tae'
pa-mate die; kill; numb something, bring under narcosis
Makassarese
pa-mate mistake for dead
CMP Kambera
pa-meti kill, bring to an end
tau pa-meti tau killer, murderer
Hawu
pe-made kill
Rotinese
ka-mate reach a firm agreement about something; keep still
Paulohi
fa-mata kill
Hitu
pa-mata kill
Asilulu
paka-mata deliver the final blows, administer a coup-de-grace; finish off
Soboyo
ka-mate kill
SHWNG Buli
fa-mat kill
OC Maleu
pa-mate-ŋe kill
Kove
pa-mate to kill
Banoni
va-mate kill
Mono-Alu
fa-mate kill
Arosi
haʔa-mae-si kill
Fijian
vaka-mate go out, of a light
Niue
faka-mate hold the tongue, keep quiet
Samoan
faʔa-mate kill (an animal); (of fire) put out
Rennellese
haka-mate commit suicide or attempt to
Maori
whaka-mate put to death; cause to be sick
Hawaiian
hoʔo-make kill; pretend to be dead; let die, let diminish, grow faint
OC Aua
foʔa fa-maʔe-ia kill
Roviana
va-mate-a kill
Kwaio
faʔa-mae-a kill, extinguish
Gilbertese
ka-mate-a kill, extinguish; learn, memorize
Fijian
vaka-mate-a put to death, kill; extinguish a light
WMP Aklanon
pa-matáy slaughter, kill off, exterminate (in great numbers)
Sundanese
pa-mati the center of life (where a man or animal can be struck dead)
Old Javanese
pa-mati means (instrument) for killing, instrumental in killing; killer, slayer
Mongondow
po-matoy that with which one kills or wants to kill
WMP Cebuano
ka-mátay for people to be killing each other; mass death, killing on a vast scale
Ngaju Dayak
ka-matäy those that have died (plants, etc.)
Uma
ka-m-ate death
ka-m-ate-(k)i die from
Bare'e
ka-mate time, place, or manner of death
WMP Tagalog
ka-mátay-an death
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
ke-metay-an death
Malay
ke-mati-an aŋin wind dying away
Bahasa Indonesia
ke-mati-an occurrence of death; suffer because of a death
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
ke-mate-n anak one who has lost a child through death
Toba Batak
ha-mate-an place where one dies
sahit ha-mate-an deadly sickness
Sasak
ke-mate-an paralyzed, numb; affected by a death
Tae'
ka-mate-an be affected by a death; dead, the dying of something; time of dying; sensitive part of the body, when one is struck there by a blow; paralyzed, of the hand
Makassarese
ka-mate-aŋ death; end of the lunar cycle
WMP [Tagalog
ṕati-anak goblin]
Malay
mati-anak an evil spirit preying on newborn children
Wolio
mate-ana kind of fish eaten only by older people, because it is supposed to kill children (in accordance with its name)
WMP Kayan
matey uhat paralyzed
Bare'e
mate ua paralyzed
WMP Bontok
na-tə́y die; dead
Dampelas
na-ate die; dead
Formosan Kavalan
patay die, dead
Amis
patay death; die; figuratively to be crushed and despair; go to extreme limits to do something
Thao
p-acay to beat, kill
Bunun (Takituduh)
pataz kill
Hoanya
ma-pasa to die
Tsou
o-p-cói kill
Kanakanabu
mia-pacái kill
Proto-Rukai
*pacay die
WMP Ilokano
patày death
ag-patáy faint, swoon, die away
mama-pátay kill, commit murder or slaughter
patay-én kill, slay, put to death, dispatch, murder, extinguish, put out; to stop (an engine)
Isneg
p-um-atáy kill
pat-patáy kill
mag-patáy fight fiercely to death
patay-án kill, extinguish, put out
Bontok
pa-tə́y kill; extinguish or put out, as a fire or a light; turn off, as a radio or a motor
p<um>atəy be extremely painful (as a headache)
Ifugaw
p-um-ate he will kill
mam-patè killer, murderer
Ifugaw (Batad)
patoy kill any kind of animal life including man
p-um-atoy that with which one kills, as a bolo
patoy-on that killed
Gaddang
patay-an kill
Ilongot
pasi kill
Pangasinan
patéy death
patéy-en kill
Sambal (Botolan)
pati-en kill
Kapampangan
p-até kill; fight
Tagalog
p-atáy dead; dead person
patay-patay dilatory, sluggish
Hanunóo
pátay dry, as of grass
Aklanon
p-atáy kill (person, animal); put out, turn off (a light); corpse, dead person
patáy-pátay "dead", poor, slim, inadequate, lousy
Kalamian Tagbanwa
patay dead
patay-en kill
Hiligaynon
p-atáy dead person, dead plant or animal, corpse
Palawan Batak
patay dead, lifeless
Cebuano
p-atáy kill, slay; dead; for something to have been killed, deadened (as an engine); new moon; be head over heels in love
patáy sa utug girl used to satisfy one's sexual desires (lit. something to kill one's erection on)
patáy-pátay do something intensely
pam-atáy something used to kill
Mamanwa
patay kill (cp. bonoʔ 'kill with spear')
Maranao
p-atay death; die
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
p-atey die
Mansaka
patay corpse; deceased; kill; die (as people), deteriorate (as crops)
Tboli
h-atay kill
Blaan (Koronadal)
f-oti kill
Rungus Dusun
na-patay dead
pataz-un kill; death
Kelabit
p-ate death of someone
Miri
f-atayh dead
Kenyah
p-atay death
pe-patay fight to death
Kayan
p-atey corpse; death
pe-patey killing one another; killing in warfare
Kiput
jakaʔ p-ataːy time of death, time when someone dies
Murung
taŋan p-atoy kill
Siang
ŋom-p-atoy kill
Ngaju Dayak
p-atäi dead person
mam-patäy kill
Malagasy
f-áty corpse; death
maha-fàty kill; put out a lamp
Malay
denda pati fine for slaying; blood-money (Java)
Toba Batak
p-ate complete, finished, come to an end (argument, process); dead
Lampung
p-ati kill
Sundanese
p-ati dying, someone's death; dead body, corpse
talaŋ pati lay down one's life for another
pati-pate-n dead person
Old Javanese
p(a)-ati death
Javanese
pati death; dead; unusable
pati-n having ceased to function
pe-pati death
Madurese
pate something that is dead
pate-ña his death, his corpse
Balinese
pati death
salah pati condemned to death; so much, very
Proto-Sangiric
*pate die; kill
Proto-Minahasan
*pate die; kill
Tontemboan
pate time of death; death; go out from time to time (fire, light)
ma-pate die
maka-pate having died, having gone out (of fire)
pate-an place of dying or killing
Mongondow
p-atoy kill; extinguish a fire or light; bring flowing water to a standstill
moko-patoy able to kill
Gorontalo
pate corpse
Dampelas
p-ate kill
Uma
p-ate-hi kill
Bare'e
mpate(-ña) the dead branches on trees
mem-pate die in throngs
Tae'
p-ate-i kill
Mandar
p-ate-i kill
WMP Old Javanese
ka-pati death (concrete case of dying)
Bare'e
ka-pate time, place, or manner of death
WMP Toba Batak
ha-pate-an the end of a matter, agreement
Mongondow
ko-patoy-an come to die, place or time in which one is overcome by death
WMP Hiligaynon
ka-patáy-un death
Javanese
ke-pati-n suffer loss through death; (of sleep) deep, sound
Madurese
ke-patey-an death
WMP Kelabit
p-in-ate was killed
Old Javanese
p-in-ati kill, mortify, cause to be like dead
Mongondow
p-in-atoy killed
Chamorro
f<in>atay death
Formosan Thao
(kay) p-acay-in be beaten, be killed
WMP Ilokano
patay-én kill, slay, put to death
Mongondow
patoy-on he must or will die
Formosan Thao
pa-p-acay to fight
Saaroa
pa-pa-paci kill
Proto-Rukai
*pa-pacay kill
WMP Ilokano
ag-pa-patáy commit suicide, take one's own life
mama-pátay kill
Samal
pa-patay kill
Kelabit
pe-p-ate kill each other
Toba Batak
pa-pate-hon bring to an end, extinguish
Sangir
pa-pate death
ka-pa-pate hour of death
Tontemboan
pa-pate death, time of dying or killing
WMP Atta (Pamplona)
pa-patay-an kill
Isneg
pa-patay-ān place in the axilla of a hog through which its heart is pierced, when slaughtering hogs
Tae'
pa-p-ate-an kill
to pa-p-ate-an murderer
WMP Ilokano
n-atáy dead, defunct, extinct, extinguished, indifferent, stopped
Atta (Pamplona)
n-atay dead
Isneg
n-atáy died, dead
Itawis
n-atáy dead
Bontok
na-tə́y die; dead
Kankanaey
n-atéy died, departed, deceased, expired, gone out
Ifugaw
n-até he/she died
Gaddang
n-atay dead
Sambal (Botolan)
n-ati dead
Lun Dayeh
in-ate was killed
Kelabit
n-ate was killed
Sangir
tau n-ate dead person
Gorontalo
il-ate dead
CMP Soboyo
n-ate 2sg, 3sg, and 3pl form of mate 'die'
Formosan Thao
m<in>acay grave, burial place
WMP Ilokano
m-in-atáy dead (person). Considered as being in somebody's charge
Maranao
m-i-a-tay so lawas paralysis
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
m-in-atey dead person
Mongondow
m-in-atoy died; gone out (fire, light)
OC Tolai
m-in-at death
Duke of York
m-in-at corpse, dead body; dead
Roviana
m-in-ate death
WMP Itawis
ma-matáy kill
Pangasinan
ma-matéy butcher
Hanunóo
ma-matáy die
Rungus Dusun
ma-matay kill
Ngaju Dayak
ma-matäy as if dying, half to death (of working hard, etc.)
Sangir
ma-mate kill
Banggai
ma-mate-kon kill
CMP Rotinese
ma-mate looking half dead; deathly sick
Erai
ma-mate who dies; going to die
Yamdena
ma-mate dead
OC Gilbertese
ma-mate immortal, imperishable, inextinguishable
Maori
ma-mate distressed
WMP Toba Batak
mate mate na almost dead
Old Javanese
a-mati mati kill (in general, not in a particular case), commit the crime of killing
Makassarese
mate mate die in throngs (in times of epidemic); total (with verbs)
CMP Rotinese
mate mate absolute, thorough, complete
Buruese
mata mata deadly
SHWNG Buli
mat-mat dead body; corpse
OC Manam
mate mate to die (iterative), to suffer
Motu
mase mase used as an intensive with hebiri (sit or stand close together), hesede (crowded, jostle, etc.)
Nggela
mate mate to overcome
Sa'a
mae-mae die, be ill, become unconscious
Arosi
mae-mae very weak, wasting; infirmity, weakness
Lonwolwol
mɛr-mɛr be faint; to faint, be half-hearted
Fijian
mate mate sickly
Rennellese
mate mate weak, exhausted, as from sickness or grief; be nearly out, as a fire
Maori
mate mate die or be taken or caught in numbers; sickly; shallow, failing, of streams
1. ‘sick’ (Ilokano, Mono-Alu, Eddystone/Mandegusu, Lau, Sa'a, Chuukese, Puluwat, Woleaian, Fijian, Maori),
2. ‘tired, tired of something’ (Ilokano, Mono-Alu, Lau, Gilbertese, Tongan),
3. ‘faint, lose consciousness; unconscious’ (Ilokano, Asilulu, Buruese, Numbami, Nggela, Lau, Kwaio, Sa'a, 'Āre'āre, Arosi, Gilbertese, Chuukese, Mota, Lonwolwol, Tongan, Rennellese, Rarotongan, Maori, Hawaiian),
4. ‘(in conjunction with *qalejaw or *waRi ‘sun’ and *bulan ‘moon’) solar or lunar eclipse’ (Bunun, Manggarai, Kambera, Rotinese, Leti, Lau, Sa'a, Arosi, Gilbertese, Tongan),
5. ‘new moon’ (Cebuano, Toba Batak, Dairi-Pakpak Batak, Makassarese, Rennellese),
6. ‘go out, become extinguished, of a torch or fire’ (Isneg, Bontok, Ilokano, Toba Batak, Bahasa Indonesia, Nias, Mongondow, Palauan, Bimanese, Manggarai, Tetun, Tolai, Kilivila, Nggela, Kwaio, Gilbertese, Chuukese, Fijian, Rennellese, Rarotongan, Maori),
7. ‘overgrown or otherwise blocked, of a path’ (Bahasa Indonesia, Toba Batak, Dairi-Pakpak Batak, Kei),
8. ‘paralyzed, of the limbs’ (Kayan, Dairi-Pakpak Batak, Nias, Sasak, Bare'e, Tae', Makassarese, Wolio, Palauan, Numbami, Nggela, Lau, Sa'a, Arosi, Gilbertese, Marshallese, Chuukese, Puluwat, Tongan, Rennellese, Kapingamarangi, Nukuoro),
9. ‘numb, asleep, of the limbs’ (Malagasy, Bahasa Indonesia, Sasak, Tae', Palauan, Sika, Tolai, Nggela, Lau, Sa'a, 'Āre'āre, Arosi, Marshallese, Lonwolwol, Nukuoro, Rarotongan),
10. ‘die down (of wind)’ (Malay, Toba Batak, Bahasa Indonesia, Bare'e, Makassarese, Kei, Buruese, Tongan),
11. ‘waterless, of springs or rivers’ (Bahasa Indonesia, Old Javanese, Mongondow?, Rarotongan, Maori),
12. ‘dry up, of plants’ (Hanunóo, Hiligaynon, Ngaju Dayak, Nias, Tetun, Nggela, Nukuoro, Rarotongan, Samoan),
13. ‘beaten in a game’ (Malagasy, Makassarese, Manggarai, Rotinese, Kei, Asilulu?, Gilbertese, Rarotongan),
14. ‘fixed, of a price’ (Malay, Bahasa Indonesia, Rotinese),
15. ‘terminate a matter, reach an agreement’ (Toba Batak, Makassarese, Yamdena, Buruese, Maori),
16. ‘disaster, misfortune’ (Tae', Rarotongan, Maori, Hawaiian),
17. ‘intensive, superlative: very, greatly; completely, thoroughly’ (Cebuano, Balinese, Rotinese, Soboyo?, Tanga, Tolai, Motu, Nggela, Kwaio),
18. ‘desire intensely, be deeply in love’ (Malagasy, Gedaged, Numbami, Gilbertese, Rarotongan, Maori).
19. ‘limp, of the penis’ (Cebuano, Mentawai),
20. ‘fatal spot on the body’ (Isneg, Cebuano, Sundanese),
21. ‘curse; oath; exclamation’ (Cebuano, Bikol, Toba Batak, Tontemboan),
22. ‘becalmed, of the sea’ (Rotinese, Kei, 'Āre'āre, Arosi, Gilbertese, Rarotongan).
WMP Isneg
adaddu long (of objects)
Kenyah (Long Anap)
dadoʔ long (of objects)
WMP Cebuano
handa-lámay small tree: Pipturus argenteus. The white part of its bark is scraped and placed over dislocated bones to prevent swelling; the leaves are applied to eczemas
Maranao
aramay hibiscus sp.: Pipturus arborescens
CMP Manggarai
sama a tree: Pipturus argenteus
Ngadha
zama kind of small tree, the bark of which is used for cordage and mail (armor)
WMP Ilokano
adaní near
um-adaní near
Atta (Pamplona)
aranni near
Isneg
adanní near
Kalinga (Guinaang)
adaní near
Sambal (Botolan)
ma-rani near
Mamanwa
arani near
Manobo (Ata)
ma-dani near
Subanon
mo-lani near
Manobo (Tigwa)
ma-dani near
Sebop
daniʔ near
Kenyah (Long Dunin)
daniʔ near
Kenyah (Long San)
laniʔ near
Penan (Long Labid)
daniʔ near
Kiput
danaiʔ near
Katingan
dani near
Lawangan
dani near
CMP Bimanese
ɗeni near
Anakalangu
ma-rani near
Helong
dani near
Tugun
rani near
Kola
ren near
Ujir
ren near
Dobel
rren near (Formosan only)
Formosan Kavalan
azas to bring (people), to take something/someone along
Atayal
aras take, take along, bring
Formosan Kavalan
m-azas to bring people, to take something/someone along
Saisiyat
maraʃ bring
Atayal
m-aras take, take along, bring
Bunun
madas take along, take
WMP Ilokano
adayó far, distant
ka-adayó interval, distance
adaw-an to go far away from, get away from, keep one’s distance
dáyo guest from another town
Itawis
arayyú far, distant
Gaddang
aroyo far
Casiguran Dumagat
adëyo far, distant; to withdraw, go far away
Bikol
rayóʔ distance, stretch; range (as of a gun)
mag-rayóʔ to take further away; to move something to a more distant location
Subanon
mo-layuʔ far
Tiruray
rayuʔ far, distant, far apart
se-rayuʔ being related by blood, but not closely, no closer than fourth cousin
Tboli
layuk distance; to be a long way off; to go away
Tausug
layuʔ distance
WMP Ilokano
ma-adayó distant (in personal relationship)
Tausug
ma-layuʔ far
Mongondow
mo-yayuʔ far, far away
WMP Ilokano
d<um>áyo to go to another place (for livelihood)
Tausug
l<um>ayuʔ to get far away from (something)
Mongondow
y<um>ayuʔ to distance oneself, move far away
Formosan Seediq (Truku)
adi negation expressing the rejection of a preceding implicit affirmation
Puyuma
aɖi negation
WMP Atta (Pamplona)
ari no, not
Balangaw
adi no, negation of non-nominal expressions
Bontok
ʔadi no, not, negative of verbs and adjectives
Ifugaw
adi negative auxiliary of verbs that actually denote a present action; if the verb denotes a past action uggé must be used
WMP Maranao
ado threaten, as a piece in chess
Iban
adu arbitrate, arrange, settle, adjust; complaint, appeal
Malay
adu pitting; matching one against the other; getting up a contest. Of any trial of strength or skill, or even of smartness and looks
Acehnese
adu compete
Karo Batak
adu competition, rivalry
Toba Batak
mar-adu compete with
Sundanese
adu come into contact with one another (as the noses or foreheads of two persons
Javanese
adu in contact, in confrontation
Balinese
adu fighting, duel, quarrel
Sasak
adu compete for something, as in cockfights or races
WMP Karo Batak
ŋ-adu complain
ŋ-adu-ken complain about someone
Sundanese
ŋ-adu fight, confront, argue
Old Javanese
aŋ-adu put face-to-face, bring into contact, make clash, have fight, pit against; to vie in, measure
aŋ-adu-adu incite
Balinese
ŋ-adu to fight
Sasak
ŋ-adu compete with others
WMP Mansaka
adoʔ shout to the spirits (as is the custom of a shaman)
Banjarese
aduh exclamation of pain, surprise, etc.
Iban
adoh exclamation of pain or surprise, adih; cry to a child to sooth it
Malay
adoh oh! as an interjection of grief or pain
Karo Batak
adu complain
Sundanese
aduh an exclamation of pain or grief' oh! ouch! alas!
Old Javanese
aḍuh an exclamation of emotion (pain, surprise, etc.)
Javanese
aḍuh exclamation of pain, sorrow, joy
Balinese
aḍuh alas, oh! (pain, grief); address to superiors; illness, groaning
CMP Kambera
arú exclamation of pain, disappointment, astonishment
WMP Karo Batak
ŋ-adu-ken complain about someone
Javanese
ŋ-aḍuh to exclaim in pain, etc.
WMP Balangaw
andu long
Bontok
ʔandu long; tall
Kayan
aru long (general term)
WMP Ifugaw
agá quick, swift, fast, implying a short time; as verb it conveys the meaning of doing something in a short time, without delaying
Casiguran Dumagat
ága to be early
Tagalog
ága earliness
ma-ága early
um-ága morning
um-agáh-in to be overtaken by morning
agáh-an breakfast
Bikol
ága morning
sa ága tomorrow
Hanunóo
ʔága punctuality
ma-ʔága to be punctual
Binukid
aga to be early; to do something early
WMP Agutaynen
mag-agag to sift flour, sand, etc.
Kelabit
agag a sieve
WMP Agutaynen
maŋ-agat to sift flour, sand, etc.
Kelabit
ŋ-agag to sift (esp. rice that has already been husked through pounding)
WMP Iban
agam consider, think, reckon that
Toba Batak
agam think, intend
WMP Aklanon
ágap give time to, concentrate, think carefully (while working)
Iban
aŋgap reckon, calculate, think, consider, look ahead; forethought, foresight
Malay (Jakarta)
aŋgap to look carefully at
WMP Binukid
agas a tree: Aporosa sphaeridophora Merr. (Madulid 2001)
Malay
agas-agas a tree: Aporosa maingayi
WMP Sebop
agem hand
Bintulu
agəm hand
Bukat
ŋ-agem to hold
Melanau (Matu)
agem hand
Madurese
agem hold
Balinese
agem hold
WMP Cebuano
águm get full use out of some benefit someone bestows on one
Subanen/Subanun
agom to enjoy (Churchill 1913)
Javanese
di-agem used, made use of
WMP Cebuano
agum dirtyish-white, greyish
Karo Batak
agem dull (of color, sound); not entirely clear, of the light
Old Javanese
agem cloudy sky
WMP Ilokano
ágiw cobweb
Tagalog
ágiw soot
Hanunóo
ʔágiw soot, such as that which collects on the rafters of a house
Aklanon
ágiw soot, black smoke deposit on wall or ceiling; to smudge, blacken with soot
agíw-on sooty, smudged
Cebuano
ágiw white, fine ashes; burn to white ashes
WMP Maranao
ago and, also
CMP Manggarai
agu and, more, yet more, still
Rembong
agu and, with, together with
WMP Yami
agom greedy
Itbayaten
agom idea of defending, greed
Ilokano
águm ambition, greed; envy
Isneg
na-áxum greedy, gluttonous
Pangasinan
ágom greedy
ma-ágom very greedy
Aklanon
ágom to taste, receive one’s due, enjoy, obtain, attain
Hiligaynon
mag-águm to obtain, attain, achieve, possess
Cebuano
águm get full use out of some benefit someone bestows on one
WMP Itbayaten
agom-an to defend, to protect
Ilokano
agúm-an to crave for, covet; be envious
WMP Kankanaey
agúm-en to collect; to assemble; to gather together; to bring together
Casiguran Dumagat
agúm companion
məg-agúm for a married couple to live together
məŋ-agúm to help someone
Ayta Abellan
agom to join, put together
Kapampangan
águm to associate
k-águm an associate, a concomitant
maki-águm to join a group
Bikol
agóm spouse, mate; husband, wife
mag-agóm to get married; husband and wife, couple
pag-agóm marriage
OC Tolai
ai it, sometimes used as a relative pronoun
Motu
ai of time or place; in, at, when, during. May be used after single words or clauses
Mono-Alu
-ai suffix: there, away; place where or whither
Arosi
ai there, that place
Tongan
ai pronominal adverb: there, in it, on it, because of it, etc.; or (in a relative sense) where, in which, on which, because of which, etc.
Niue
ai a particle used in the following ways: 1. after verbs to show that what has happened, or is to happen, is the result, consequence, or intention of what has gone before, 2. to indicate a relative clause, frequently giving a verb a passive sense, 3. with the prepositions i and aki to refer to a thing or place already mentioned
Samoan
ai anaphoric and relative particle: there, why (e.g. 'that was the reason why he came'), herein, hereby
Tuvaluan
ai anaphoric pronoun
Nukuoro
ai predicate complement
Rennellese
ai common anaphoric particle usually closing a verb phrase and liking it to a preceding noun, often with meaning there, thereby, thus, at, in, it, him, her
Rarotongan
ai particle used after a verb to denote cause, means, etc. of event, or to connect an intransitive verb with a transitive verb
Maori
ai not generally to be translated by any equivalent English word, but used in the following cases: 1. in relative clauses, where the relative in English is governed by a verb or preposition, 2. in clauses expressing the reason for which anything is done, or the object in view in doing it, 3. in clauses marking the time or place of an action or event, 4. with a verb or adjective denoting an action or state consequent upon some previous action, 5. denoting present habitual condition or action, 6. with reference to something previously mentioned
Hawaiian
ai linking or anaphoric particle. Every ai in Hawaiian has an antecedent, usually expressed, but sometimes understood (Elbert and Pukui 1979:96)
Formosan Atayal
ai exclamation
Paiwan
ai exclamation: alas! oh my!
WMP Itbayaten
ay an expression of surprise, awe and the like
Ilokano
ay an interjection: ah!
ay-áy woe to
Isneg
ay an interjection: ah!
Kankanaey
ay-ʔay ah! ho! what a pickle you are in! Interjection denoting wonder or surprise
Ifugaw
ay exclamation to arouse someone's attention
Pangasinan
ay interjection expressing hesitation, surprise, or consternation
Tagalog
ay interjection: ay! alas!
Bikol
ay ah (exclamation)
Aklanon
ay interjection: my! oh! what? (shock, surprise)
Maranao
ay-ʔay exclamation of disdain or disbelief
Kelabit
ai cry of surprise, shock or dismay
Melanau (Mukah)
ay exclamation, oh!
Malay
ai interjection expressive of interest and approval
Nias
ai interjection: hey!
Rejang
ai-ai ejaculation of astonishment or appreciation
Javanese
ai exclamation of incredulity or deprecation
Mongondow
ai exclamation: hey!
Gorontalo
aːyi exclamation, as on seeing a snake
CMP Bimanese
ai exclamation
Ngadha
ai wail and lament; complain
Kambera
ai exclamation
OC Mbula
ai hey!
Kilivila
ai oh no!
Cheke Holo
ai exclamation of surprise
Nggela
ai exclamation of surprise
Sa'a
ai exclamation of dissent, disapproval or surprise
WMP Ilokano
ay to come
ipa-ay to present, use as, offer
Tiruray
ʔay to go, to come
Tboli
è e c’mon, come on!
Enggano
ai come
Tontemboan
ai hither, toward the place where the speaker is; used as a verbal postclitic
a-ai arrival
ke-ai at the coming of
maka-ai all come
mapa-ai let come, allow to come
ai-en to have come to (a condition)
Formosan Favorlang/Babuza
mai to come
WMP Ilokano
um-ay to come
aginʔa-ay to pretend to come
maka-umay able to come
Tontemboan
m-ai will come, shall come
Banggai
mai Come!
Tae'
mai hither, toward the speaker
dio mai from there
dao mai from above
male mai come here
Proto-Bungku-Tolaki
*mai to come
Mandar
mai from; hither, to here
Wolio
mai come; hither; Come on! (= ‘Let’s go!’)
Muna
mai come
mai-mo Come on! Let us.
CMP Bimanese
mai to come; Come on! Let’s go!
Manggarai
mai Come on! Let’s go!; hither; to come; then, therefore, thus; origin, originate; from, after (in time)
Rembong
mai to come; Come on! Let’s go!
Ngadha
mai to come; hither
Sika
mai to come
Lamboya
mai to come
Kambera
mai to come
Hawu
mai to come
Rotinese
mai to come; to arrive
Tetun
mai to come; prepostion: to, for, here
mai be but, however
Erai
ma to come
Kisar
mai to come
Leti
mai to come
Luang
n-mai to come
Wetan
mai to come, to come to, to become (in this case it is usually followed by pi)
Selaru
r-ma to come
Yamdena
n-ma to come
Kamarian
mai hither, toward the speaker
Paulohi
mai to come; hither
Alune
mai to come; here
SHWNG Buli
ma hither, toward the speaker
Numfor
ma toward the speaker
rā-ma come hither
Waropen
ma hither, toward the speaker
aede ma come here
Ansus
ra-ma come
SHWNG Munggui
ra-ma to come
OC Lou
me to come
wa me Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Penchal
me to come
wa me Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Loniu
me to come
Titan
me to come
Levei
o me Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Sori
may to come
go may Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Lindrou
wa me Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Bipi
me to come
Wuvulu
mai to come
no mai Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Mussau
mai to come
kasu mai Come here! (= ‘walk hither’)
Tolai
mai hither, to here; Come here!; to cease, stop, abate, of rain
Bali (Uneapa)
mai to come
Vitu
mai come; this way, here; to me
Amara
-me come
Lakalai
mai to me; hither
o-mai here
s-o-mai in my direction
Sobei
e-ma to come
Kairiru
-myai come; motion towards the speaker
Kis
me to come
Manam
mai to come
go mai Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Motu
mai to come
Molima
mai to come; hither (vs. wai)
Selau
la ma Come here! (= ‘walk hither’)
Piva
nu-mai to come
Mono-Alu
lao-ma Come here! (= ‘walk hither’)
Sengga
me to come
Kokota
mai to come
Hoava
mae to come
Vangunu
mai to come
Eddystone/Mandegusu
mai hither, to here, generally used with an imperative; to come
bola mai Come here!
Nggela
mai hither, from a point, at a point away from the speaker; come; up til now, from up til now
nia mai come with, bring
vula te mai next month
Lengo
mai to come
Longgu
la mai Come here! (= ‘walk hither’)
Kwaio
mai hither; come
mai-a call someone by waving the hand; beckon
siŋali loʔo mai next month
Toqabaqita
mai venitive directional; signals direction toward the deictic center; in temporal noun phrases it signals that the period of time is distant from the time of reference
'Āre'āre
mai here, hither, this way, said of things and persons coming nearby; come here; give it to me; let me see, show me
uta mai rain is coming
Sa'a
mai hither, here, this way
Arosi
mai hither; nearer
mai hei? Where do you come from?
haa mai Give me
Proto-Micronesian
*mai from
Gilbertese
mai from
mai ikai from here
ka-mai Give me! (for distant objects)
nako-mai Come here, come towards me!
Puluwat
me from
Woleaian
me from, at, to than (as in ‘Where did you come from?’)
Carolinian
me from, at
Motlav
van me Come here! (= ‘walk hither’)
Mota
ma hither, this way
Fortsenal
su-mai to come
Raga
mai to come
Leviamp
ma to come
Axamb
-ko-mai Come here! (= ‘you come’)
Makatea
nu-mai to come
Nakanamanga
u-mai to come
Wayan
mai indicates movement or orientation towards the speaker or the speaker’s point of reference: this way, hither, here (the movement may be actual or figurative); indicates that a change of state is beginning or is in progress: start to, become, grow, get (into a new state)
Fijian
mai a directive particle after verbs, indicating movement towards the speaker
Tongan
mai to or towards me or us, etc.; also expression of desire, etc.
Niue
mai directive particle: hither, this way, towards the speaker; to give (towards the speaker only); from
Futunan
mai mai
mai le tosi Give me the book!
Samoan
mai pre-basic particle, from; post-basic particle which denotes a literal or figurative movement from a position (in space or time) toward the point where the speaker is
Tuvaluan
mai towards the speaker; to pass to the speaker; to come (plural)
Kapingamarangi
mai toward speaker; from (place or time)
Nukuoro
mai toward the speaker; less; nearer
Rennellese
mai directional particle and verb indicating direction towards the speaker; this way, here; me, us; give me; look here; preposition, from
Anuta
mai particle indicating action toward some point of reference, generally the speaker; from
Rarotongan
mai hither, here; correlative of atu; used with verbs, adjectives and local nouns to indicate direction or action towards the speaker
Maori
mai hither, correlative of atu; used with verbs, adjectives and local nouns to indicate direction or action towards the speaker; indicating extension of time or space towards the speaker; often to be translated ‘from’
Hawaiian
mai direction towards the speaker; come, come here; say, give (used without particles); almost, nearly, as though; particle of negative command
hele mai Come!
WMP [Isneg
náxan who?, what? (cp. ŋáxan 'name, appellation')]
Kalamian Tagbanwa
aran name
Mansaka
aran name
Belait
adin name
adin name
Kayan (Uma Juman)
ara name
Bukat
aran name
Lahanan
aran name
Ngaju Dayak
ara name
Taboyan
aran name
Maloh
asan name
Singhi Land Dayak
adun name
Old Javanese
aran name
Javanese
aran personal name; name, (what something is) called or known as
Balinese
adan name, appellation; give a name
Sasak
aran name
OC Seimat
axa- name
Tigak
asan name
Tabar
asa- name
Mendak
aza- name
Tanga
asa name, either personal or common; who?
Label
asa what?
Sobei
asa- name
Tarpia
taya- <M name
Kairiru
asa- name
Manam
ara- name
Magori
aka name
Hula
ara name
Motu
lada- name
Gabadi
aga name
Roro
ata- name
Mekeo (East)
aka- name
aka name
Banoni
vasaŋa name
Nggela
aha name
ahei (< *asa-i) who?; whoever, anyone, he who
Kwaio
lata name
lata-na name; reputation
Lau
sata name; namesake; friend
'Āre'āre
rata-i name
rata-na name
Sa'a
sata name
Arosi
ata name
atei (< *asa-i) who; interrogative pronoun, but not indefinite like Mota isei
Gilbertese
ara name, title, noun
are (< *asa-i) who, whom, that, which, what, whoever
Marshallese
āt name; reputation
Pohnpeian
ahd name; noun
Mokilese
ad name; reputation
Jawe
yat name
Rotuman
asa name; reputation, honor
Fijian
yaca name
WMP Sasak
p-aran give someone a name
OC Fijian
vaka-yaca-na to name (Formosan only)
Formosan Basai
anem liver
Kavalan
anem heart, mind
kasi-anem to think
si-anem to remember
Saisiyat (Taai)
azem heart (mind)
maL-ʔaz-ʔazem to think
WMP Pangasinan
agí ouch!
Iban
adih exclamation of pain or surprise
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
áka older sibling (reference)
Yakan
s-aka to be older in age than someone else (people and domesticated animals); older brother or sister; elder sibling
Sama (Central)
si-aka elder sibling
Tarakan
i-aka elder sibling
Ngaju Dayak
aka one’s own elder sibling of the same sex
WMP Sundanese
aŋka-ŋ elder brother
Balinese
aka-ŋ older brother or sister
Sangir
aka-ŋ the older of two brothers or sisters
WMP Kalamian Tagbanwa
aka-Ɂ older sibling
Tingalan (West)
pag-aka-Ɂ sibling
Tingalan (East)
aka-Ɂ sibling
WMP Bikol
ákák to quack
Balinese
akak laugh loudly
CMP Manggarai
ahak imitation of the sound of a cough
WMP Bontok
ʔákaŋ to step over, as a rock or a sleeping person
Kankanaey
akaŋ-káŋ to spread one’s legs; to straddle
Ifugaw (Batad)
ākaŋ for someone to step over someone or something, especially something low
Casiguran Dumagat
akáŋ to cautiously take a step (as a hunter in stalking game, or a small child just learning to walk)
Lun Dayeh
akaŋ a pace, step, stride
ŋ-akaŋ open the legs to step forward, step over something
kaŋ-en ~ kaŋ-in will be stepped over
WMP Bisaya (Limbang)
akaw vine, creeper
Murik
akah vines, creepers, aerial roots
Kayan (Uma Juman)
akah vines, creepers, exclusive of rattan
Malay
akar root; root-fibre; creeping or climbing plant; liana
Karo Batak
akar very young jungle (must have earlier referred to creepers)
Balinese
akah root, tree root
Sasak
akar root
CMP Tugun
ai ʔakar root
Watubela
akal root
OC Tongan
aka root
Samoan
aʔa root
Tuvaluan
aka root
Kapingamarangi
aga root (of tree or plant)
Rennellese
aka root
Anuta
vai-aka root
Rarotongan
aka root
Maori
aka long and thin roots of trees or plants; vine of any climbing plant
Hawaiian
aʔa small root, vein, artery, nerve, tendon, muscle
OC Eddystone/Mandegusu
ake sp. tree
Tongan
ake hardwood tree found at Vava’u
Rarotongan
akeake a tree which is common at high altitudes --- it attains from 12 to 15 feet in height, Xylosma gracile
Maori
ake a tree: Dodonaea viscosa
Hawaiian
aʔe several native trees, the soapberry (sapindus saponaria f. inaequalis), and all species of Fagara (also known as Xanthoxylum), Fagara having yellowish wood formerly used for digging sticks and spears; seeds of all (largest in the soapberry) are black, round, and used for leis
Formosan Thao
y-akin 1sg accusative and absolute possessive pronoun
Proto-Bunun
*ð-akun 1sg acc (Ross 2006:533)
Paiwan
ti-aken I
tjanu-aken me
WMP Ibatan
y-aken 1sg topicalized nominative pronoun, fronted agent pronoun
dy-aken 1sg dative and emphatic possessive marker
Tagalog
ákin 1sg oblique
Maranao
r-aken 1sg oblique
Bonggi
di-adn 1sg oblique
Sungai Seguliud
akon 1sg oblique
Ida'an Begak
n-akon 1sg oblique
Murut (Kolod)
d-akon 1sg oblique
WMP Malay
akan to; towards; going towards; about to; shall
-kan transitive suffix
Bahasa Indonesia
akan about (as in ‘forget about’); concerning; in order to
Karo Batak
-ken transitive or causative suffix (tasak ‘ripe, ready to eat’ : tasak-ken ‘to make ready, cook’ pajek ‘vertical’ : pajek-ken ‘to erect’; peti ‘box’ : peti-ken ‘to put into a box’, begi ‘to hear’ : begi-ken ‘to listen to’
Toba Batak
-hon verb suffix that represents the object as being the immediate cause of an action or state
Old Javanese
akən like, by way of; to be considered as
Javanese (Krama)
-aken to do on someone’s behalf; to have someone do, to have something done; to use; to bring about (an act or condition)
Wolio
-aka suffix marking a phrase as subordinate; verbal suffix indicating a relation with an object (e.g. unda ‘to agree’ : unda-aka ‘to approve of’, potawa ‘to laugh’ : potowa-aka ‘to laugh at’, taŋi ‘to weep’ : taŋi-aka ‘to bewail, weep for s.o.’)
WMP Tagalog
akláhaʔ cry of monkeys
Maranao
keraʔ sound made by the monkey
Iban
kerah-kerah chattering
CMP Manggarai
kera call, cry of a monkey
Ngadha
kera shrill cry of monkeys (Formosan only)
Formosan Atayal
akiʔ paternal or maternal grandmother
Thao
aki grandfather
Tsou
akʔi grandfather
WMP Molbog
aki grandfather
Tatana
aki ~ yaki grandfather
Murut (Timugon)
aki grandfather
Lolak
aki grandfather
Mongondow
aki grandfather
WMP Aklanon
áŋkit to bite, nip
Ngaju Dayak
p-aŋkit biting, to bite (as a dog)
CMP Manggarai
akit to bite
WMP Dusun Malang
maŋkit to bite
CMP Tetun
makkit to bite
OC Duke of York
akoto to point out, show
Tongan
ako to learn, to receive, to receive education
Samoan
aʔo to learn; to teach, train
Rennellese
ako teacher; religious instructor; to teach
Anuta
ako to learn
paka-ako to teach
Rarotongan
ako to admonish, warn, reprove mildly; to exhort, to teach, to advise
Maori
ako to learn; to teach, instruct, advise
Hawaiian
aʔo instruction, teaching, doctrine, learning
Formosan Kavalan
iku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Atayal
s-aku primary pronoun, I
Proto-Atayalic
*-aku I
Tsou
na-ʔo 1sg.; I’
Rukai (Budai)
ko-akó 1sg.; I’
Proto-Rukai
*-ako 1sg.; I’
WMP Itbayaten
ako I
Ivatan
ako 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Sambal (Botolan)
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Kapampangan
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Tagalog
akó 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Remontado
s-aku 1sg., I
Bikol
akó 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Buhid
aó 1sg., I
Hanunóo
ʔakú I (pronoun)
Inati
ako 1sg,, I/me
Aklanon
akó 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Hiligaynon
akú 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Palawan Batak
ʔakó I (pronoun)
Cebuano
akú I, me
Aborlan Tagbanwa
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Maranao
ako 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Mansaka
aku 1sg. topic pronoun: I
Yakan
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Bonggi
ou 1sg. focused actor pronoun: I
Tboli
ɔʔuh 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Tausug
akuh 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Samal
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Murut (Timugon)
aku 1sg. topic and theme pronoun: I
Ida'an Begak
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Murut (Tagol)
aku 1sg. short form nominative pronoun
Bisaya (Lotud)
oku 1sg., I
Bisaya (Limbang)
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Bisaya
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (coarse, or non-respect form)
Bulungan
aku 1sg. nominative; I
Kelabit
u-ih 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Berawan (Long Terawan)
akkoh 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Narum
kaw 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Miri
ko-y 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Penan (Long Labid)
akəuʔ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Kayan (Uma Juman)
aku-y 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Bintulu
akəw 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Melanau (Mukah)
akəw 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Siang
akuh 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Ma'anyan
aku 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Malagasy
aho I, myself (used chiefly after the predicate)
Dusun Witu
aku 1sg., I
Iban
aku I, me, my, mine
Singhi Land Dayak
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Jarai
kəw I, me
Rhade
kəw I, me
Malay
aku I; me. The pronoun of the first person singular, but used in a double sense: (i) 'myself', used by a superior to an inferior, by an elder to a younger, or between equals talking so familiarly as to ignore etiquette. Also in prayer, (ii) 'my own', i.e. taking responsibility for or answering for
Gayō
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Simalur
aʔu 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Karo Batak
aku 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Toba Batak
ahu 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Mentawai
āku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Rejang
uku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Old Javanese
aku pronoun of the first person: I, me
Javanese
aku 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me; my (variant of -ku)
Sasak
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Tonsawang
ahu 1sg., I
Mongondow
aku-oi 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Buol
aku 1sg., I
Banggai
i-aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Uma
aku-ʔ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Bare'e
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Tae'
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Mori
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (future)
Wolio
-aku suffix with transitive verbs indicating 1sg. object
Palauan
ŋak 1sg. emphatic subject and object pronoun: I, me
Chamorro
gwahu 1sg. emphatic subject pronoun: I
CMP Komodo
ahu 1sg.: I, me
Manggarai
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Riung
aku 1sg., I
Li'o
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Hawu
yaː 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Rotinese
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Atoni
auʔ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Tetun (Dili)
h-au 1sg., I
Kemak
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Mambai
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Erai
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Talur
g-aʔu I
Tugun
au 1sg., I
Kisar
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Leti
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Luang
aʔu 1sg., I, me
Wetan
ai 1sg., I
Selaru
yau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Kola
ak 1sg., I
Ujir
ak 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Dobel
saʔu 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)
ok 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Elat
ak 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Geser
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Bonfia
y-ā 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Nuaulu
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Paulohi
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Alune
aku~ au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Boano₂
au-ne 1sg., I, me
Soboyo
aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Sekar
yai 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
SHWNG Kowiai/Koiwai
laʔ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Buli
ya 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Munggui
yau 1sg., I
OC Wuvulu
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Tabar
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Sursurunga
yau 1sg., I
Arop
au 1sg., I
Sobei
yau 1sg., I
Kis
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Sinaugoro
au 1sg., I/me
Roro
au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Papapana
au 1sg. object, me
Haku
aku 1sg., I
Torau
in-au 1sg, I, me
Ura
yau 1sg., I
Tongan
au 1sg.: I, me
Niue
au 1sg.: I, me
Samoan
aʔu 1sg. exclusive conjunct verbal pronoun (post-basic)
Tahitian
(v)au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Maori
au 1sg.: I, me
Hawaiian
(w)au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Formosan Saisiyat
y-ako 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Seediq (Truku)
y-aku emphatic form of the 1sg. personal pronoun; always requires a particle (ka or o) in order to be united with the predicate of which it is the subject
Pazeh
y-aku 1sg. topic and accusative pronoun: I, me
Thao
y-aku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Bunun
ðaku me
Saaroa
ilh-aku 1sg.; I
WMP Ba'amang
y-akuʔ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Malagasy
iz-aho I, myself (used chiefly before the predicate)
Nias
y-aʔó 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me
Wolio
i-aku 1sg.: I, me
CMP Kodi
jajo 1sg., I
Yamdena
yaku 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Hitu
y-au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Buruese
y-ako me. Usually objective case
Tifu
yako 1sg., I/me
Onin
i-ai 1sg., I
SHWNG Gimán
yak 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Dusner
ya 1sg., I
Wandamen
yau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Ron
ya 1sg., I
Numfor
ya 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Marau₁
i-au 1sg., I
Ansus
y-au 1sg, I
Ambai
yau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
yau 1sg., I
Woi
yau 1sg., I
OC Leipon
yo 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Ponam
ja 1sg, I, me
Duke of York
i-au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Maleu
i-au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Lakalai
e-au I, me
Mengen
i-au 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Sobei
yau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Gitua
yau 1st sg., I
Ubir
yau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Suau
yau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Motu
lau 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Pokau
i-au 1sg., I
Mekeo (East)
lau 1sg., I
Saliba
yau 1sg, I, me
Tinputz
yo 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Sie
i-au 1sg., I
Sye
y-au 1sg., I
Southwest Tanna
i-ou 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Fijian
i-au 1sg. cardinal pronoun: I
WMP Ilokano
ako-én receive, accept with both hands; receive graciously (a petitioner, etc.); to get (a reward)
Malay (Sarawak)
akun claim, admit
Old Javanese
akon-akon possession (promised as war booty); acknowledged (adopted) child
Formosan Amis
kako 1sg.; I
WMP Kapampangan
kaku 1sg. benefactive-dative personal pronoun; to (for) me (Mirikitani 1972:102)
Karo Batak
kaku someone who answers for another
Rejang
k-akew acknowledge (imperative)
Old Javanese
k-āku make something one's own, to appropriate; relate to oneself, take possession of, master; regard as one's own, acknowledge, confess to, admit; to claim (as one's own), be sure of, depend on, answer for, guarantee, declare that one is able to (often boastfully)
WMP Pangasinan
maŋ-áko accept, receive
Iban
ŋ-akuʔ treat as, acknowledge; claim, admit, confess, own (as if owning up to the paternity of a child)
Karo Batak
ŋ-aku admit, confess
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
meŋ-aku-i guarantee, be responsible for
Toba Batak
meŋ-ahu-hon desire for oneself
Rejang
meŋ-akew acknowledging
Sundanese
ŋ-aku admit, confess; to receive (a guest)
Old Javanese
aŋ-aku make something one's own, to appropriate; relate to someone; take possession of, master; regard as one's own, acknowledge, confess to, admit; claim (as one's own), be sure of, depend on, answer for, guarantee, declare that one is able to (often boastfully)
Javanese
ŋ-aku acknowledge, claim or acknowledge as one's own; claim falsely
Madurese
ŋ-ako admit, confess
Balinese
ŋ-aku claim as one's own, say 'mine'; acknowledge (a child)
Sasak
ŋ-aku admit, confess
Sangir
maŋ-aku admit, confess; undertake something
Tontemboan
maŋ-aku admit, confess; commit oneself to something
Mongondow
moŋ-aku admit, confess, acknowledge, promise
Gorontalo
moŋ-aku admit, confess
Dampelas
meŋ-aku admit, confess
Bare'e
maŋ-aku admit, confess; undertake something
Tae'
maŋ-aku admit, confess
Makassarese
aŋŋ-aku admit, confess
WMP Cebuano
n-ákuʔ my; by me (agent/possessor form)
Lampung
ñak I (coarse form)
CMP Bimanese
nahu I (older person speaking to younger one: coarse, or non-respect form)
OC Tigak
nak I
Magori
nau 1sg.
Misima
nau 1sg.
Bugotu
i-nau I
Nggela
nau I, me; to seize
Kwaio
nau I, me
nau ʔania claim title to
Lau
nau I, me
nau-nau self-assertive, egotist; strong and violent, of a person
nau sata to own
Sa'a
i-neu 1sg., used as subject only and followed by nou
Ulawa
i-nau 1sg., used as subject and also as a possessive
Mota
i-nau 1sg., I, me
Raga
i-nau 1sg.
Paamese
i-nau I, me, 1sg.
Nakanamanga
ki-nau 1sg.
Canala
na I, me
OC Lou
ŋa 1sg.: I
Seimat
ŋa 1sg. nominative pronoun: I
Lamogai
ŋa 1sg.: I
ŋa 1sg.: I
Sengseng
ŋa 1sg.: I
Manam
ŋau 1sg.: I
Gedaged
ŋa 1sg.: I, me
Gitua
ŋa I (subject prefix): yau ŋa geno 'I slept'
Nehan
i-ŋo 1sg.: I, my
Kosraean
ŋa 1sg.: I
Marshallese
ŋa absolute pronoun, 1sg.: I
Nokuku
nau 1sg., I
Amblong
n-au 1sg., I
Formosan Kavalan
ara get it!
Pazeh
ara to take, get, obtain; marry
Amis
ala to take
Thao
ara get it!
maki-ara pluck rice heads between the thumb and index finger in harvesting
WMP Bontok
ʔála get
Ibaloy
ala to get, take something
Pangasinan
alá get, take
ala-án source of something
Mentawai
ala fetch, get, pick up
Sundanese
ala fetch, get, look for, gather in, harvest
Uma
pa-ʔala catch something; haul in loot or booty
Mandar
ala fetch, get, take
CMP Komodo
ala take; marry
Soboyo
ala fetch, get, take, capture
OC Gilbertese
ana take, subtract, take away, remove, take off
Formosan Amis
ma-ala be taken
WMP Ibaloy
m-ada to get, take something
Uma
ma-ʔala seized, caught
Formosan Kavalan
m-ara to get, take
Pazeh
m-ara to take
Thao
m-ara to get, fetch, take
Tsou
m-aro to take
Kanakanabu
um-á-ala to take
Saaroa
um-a-ala to take
Proto-Rukai
*maLa to take
WMP Ilokano
um-ála resemble in looks, take after
Bontok
ʔ<um>ála to fetch, to get
Wawonii
um-ala-o to take (Mead 1998:425)
Buginese
m-ala to take
Formosan Amis
ala-en be taken
WMP Ilokano
alá-en take, get, go and get
Ibaloy
ala-en to get, take something
Malagasy
ala-ìna be fetched; be taken, be summoned, be called, be invited; be chosen, be preferred
WMP Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
elavat wall; to make a wall
Mansaka
arabat wall
Tboli
labat fence
Proto-Minahasan
*alabat fence
Tondano
alawat obstruction (esp. on road)
Mongondow
olabat ~ labat beam of a balustrade
WMP Pangasinan
man-alagár to wait
Hanunóo
ʔalagád waiting
Cebuano (dialectal)
alagád wait for someone to do something
WMP Ifugaw
alága kind of big reddish ant, known to cause much pain by its stinging
Tombonuwo
lagaʔ type of large ant
Proto-Minahasan
*lagaʔ large red tree ant
Mongondow
olagaʔ kind of large red tree ant
Wolio
laga kind of big red ant living on trees
WMP Agta (Eastern)
alali type of fish
CMP Proto-Ambon
*alali halibut, flounder
OC Seimat
alal flat bottom-dwelling fish: halibut, flounder
Wuvulu
alali flounder
Tongan
ali flounder (fish)
Samoan
ali name given to flat fish, esp. to flounders of genera Platophrys and Zebrasoma
Rennellese
agi general name for flat fishes: flounders, soles, etc.
WMP Hanunóo
ʔaláŋ doubt
WMP Ilokano
alaŋán met of course
alaŋan-en to be doubtful
Ayta Abellan
alaŋan to hesitate
Tagalog
mag-alaŋán to hesitate; to vacillate; to scruple; to be left in an ambiguous or doubtful position
álaŋan-in doubtful; uncertain; hesitant; undecided; perplexed
Bikol
alaŋán awkward, feeling out of place; indecisive; undecided
Hanunóo
ʔaláŋan doubt, uncertainty
Binukid
ka-alaŋan to figure out, to think up (a way to do or come up with something)
Mansaka
araŋan to be hesitant; to be reluctant; to be overly cautious
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
alaŋ-alaŋ in consideration of; for the sake of
Pangasinan
alaŋ-alaŋ to be doubtful
Tagalog
alaŋ-alaŋ regard; respect; esteen; consideration (as for the elderly)
isa-alaŋ-alaŋ to consider; to take into account
Waray-Waray
alaŋ-alaŋ uncertain; not sure; doubtful
Hiligaynon
alaŋ-álaŋ doubtful; immature
mag-alaŋ-álaŋ to hesitate
Maranao
alaŋ-alaŋ incomplete, suspended
WMP Binukid
alaŋ-alaŋ somewhat, but not quite; not up to a certain level; to be not quite (as fruit that isn’t yet ripe enough to eat)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
alaŋ-alaŋ to deceive by hypocrisy; to be at the stage of growth where one is almost an adult
Mansaka
araŋ-an hesitant; reluctant; overly cautious
Tiruray
ʔalaŋ-alaŋ falling short, not fully completed, discontinued too soon
Mapun
alaŋ-alaŋ partially; sparingly; without all of one’s effort; half-heartedly
alaŋ-kapalaŋ to be hesitant or reluctant
Iban
alaŋ-alaŋ insufficient, (do) half-heartedly
Malay
alaŋ mediocre; medium; half-and-half
alaŋ-alaŋ-an half-hearted; in a mild way; of a man who is a poor hater, or lover
Acehnese
alaŋ too short, too little, insufficient, inadequate
Karo Batak
alaŋ-alaŋ mediocre; in-between; insufficient; for one purpose too large, for another too small
alaŋ-alaŋ-en lacking the courage to do something; indecisive, wavering
Toba Batak
alaŋ insufficient, inadequate
m-alaŋ deferential
si-alaŋ-alaŋ not enough to make two, but too much for one, as with pieces in carpentry
horbo si-alaŋ-alaŋ a carabao that is too large to slaughter, but too small to work
Formosan Paiwan
alap take, pick up
ki-alap (bride) go to groom's house
WMP Itbayaten
axap idea of taking, getting, bringing
axa-axap children's game: catching, tag
paka-axap-an object-agent for plentiful catch (in fishing)
Casiguran Dumagat
aláp to get, catch, trap
Kelabit
alap act of taking, getting or fetching
Jarai
dua rep-an eight (etymologically = 'two taken away from ten')
Malay
alap gather fruit by means of a long pole to which a knife or hook is attached
d-elap-an eight (etymologically = 'two taken away from ten')
Talaud
alappa to get, fetch
Toba Batak
alap fetch; invite
si-alap ari messenger of the bridegroom to the father of the bride to inquire about the day of the wedding ceremony
Sundanese
d-alap-an eight (etymologically = 'two taken away from ten')
s-alap-an nine (etymologically = 'one taken away from ten’)
Old Javanese
alap take, fetch, carry off, steal, seize, win
alap alap a certain bird of prey. The texts suggest a large creature, which can attack a man; an eagle?
dwa-lap-an eight (etymologically = 'two taken away from ten')
sa-lap-an eight (etymologically = 'one taken away from ten')
Javanese
alap a variety of hawk
Balinese
alap take off, pluck (fruit), harvest; take away, abduct; the fruit-harvest
Proto-Sangiric
*alap get, fetch
Sangir
alaʔ fetch, take; bite (of fish)
Mongondow
alap catch, seize, grasp
Mori Bawah
mo-ʔala to take
OC Nggela
alav-i to get, take
Tongan
ala gather or catch with the hands, of certain kinds of shellfish and small crabs
alaf-i catch it
alaf-ia (of a woman) to be married, or (more strictly) to have had sexual intercourse, not to be a virgin
WMP Itbayaten
ka-axap upon getting (it)
Old Javanese
k-ālap taken, fetched, carried off
WMP Itbayaten
ka-axap-an getting
Old Javanese
k-ālap-an taken, fetched, carried off
Formosan Paiwan
ma-alap be taken; able to be reached; become convinced, have mind changed; be enticed, led astray
WMP Itbayaten
ma-axap be caught, be apprehended
Old Javanese
m-ālap take, fetch, carry off
WMP Itbayaten
maka-axap can get
Sangir
maka-alaʔ able to reach or get
Mongondow
moko-alap able to seize or capture
WMP Itbayaten
maŋ-xap fetch, get, buy, procure, take
Kelabit
ŋ-alap take, get, fetch
Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-alap fetch (knock down) fruits, etc.
Toba Batak
maŋ-alap fetch; invite
Old Javanese
aŋ-alap take, fetch, carry off, steal, seize, win
Sangir
maŋ-alaʔ fetch, take; bite (of fish)
WMP Old Javanese
paŋ-alap a means of catching
Sangir
paŋ-alaʔ all sorts of fishing gear: nets, traps, lines, spears, etc.
WMP Toba Batak
paŋ-alap-an boru that relationship within which a man is permitted by customary law to take a wife
paŋ-alap-an gogo the place or means by which one acquires strength
Old Javanese
paŋ-alap-an place for fetching something
Formosan Paiwan
in-alap something which has been taken; one's catch (hunting)
WMP Itbayaten
in-axap was taken; took, got
Kelabit
n-alap was taken or gotten by
Old Javanese
in-alap was taken, fetched, carried off, stolen, seized, won
Mongondow
in-alap captured, seized, taken
WMP Itbayaten
om-axap take, get, bring
Old Javanese
um-alap take, fetch, carry off, steal, seize, win
WMP Itbayaten
axap-an means for taking
Balinese
alap-an the harvesting of fruit
WMP Itbayaten
axap-en get, take, fetch, buy, take out, draw out
Mongondow
alap-on it must or shall be gotten or taken
Mori Bawah
ala-o to take
Formosan Pazeh
araʔ-i take it!
WMP Ilokano
ála take, get, go to and get
Isneg
aláʔ get, obtain, take, catch, bring
Bontok
ʔála get
Ifugaw
ála conveys the action-denoting idea of getting, taking
Ifugaw (Batad)
āla get
Pangasinan
alá get, take
ala-án source of something
Kenyah
alaʔ take
Kayan
ala get, receive, take, find
Malagasy
ála removed, taken away, released, fetched, withdrawn, freed from
Mentawai
ala fetch, get, pick up
Banggai
ala take away, fetch
po-ala marry
Uma
alaʔ fetch, get, take
Bare'e
aya fetch, get, take; use; believe, trust; care for; reckon with
Tae'
ala fetch, get, take; begin a song; contact, touch
Mandar
ala fetch, get, take
Buginese
ala fetch, get, take
ka-ala-ala take what is not rightfully one's own
Wolio
ala take, fetch, include, take along, take away, accept
po-ala change with each other, marry one another
CMP Komodo
ala take; marry
ala fetch, get, take; search for (firewood), cut and haul (pandanus); understand, grasp
Manggarai
ala get, fetch
Rembong
ala fetch, get, take
Ngadha
ala fetch, get, take; take out, win, capture
ala até take note of, remember
Sika
ʔala fetch, get, take, capture
Rotinese
-ala fetch, get, take, capture
Kisar
ala give
Wetan
ala to use, to take; like, love, marry
i-ala belongings, clothing, what one uses
Selaru
al receive, get, take; give
Dobel
n-al take
Buruese
ala-h pluck, as grain from the stem
ala-k bring
Soboyo
ala fetch, get, take, capture
SHWNG Buli
yal get, fetch
OC Gilbertese
ana take, subtract, take away, remove, take off
WMP Isneg
ma-alaʔ to get, etc., be able to get, etc., it can be got, etc.
Bare'e
m-aya it is taken, caught, succeeded, it can be, may be, it is possible
Tae'
ma-ala it is gotten, it is successful, it is popular, it has a discount (of merchandise)
Wolio
ma-ala in demand, in favor, popular
WMP Isneg
maŋ-alaʔ catch
Ifugaw
maŋ-ála go to get
Malagasy
man-àla take away, remove from, subtract, withdraw from
Banggai
maŋ-ala take away, fetch
Uma
ŋ-alaʔ take, fetch, get
Bare'e
maŋ-aya do one thing or another to someone; damage something
Tae'
maŋ-ala fetch, take, in the pregnant sense of lending money
WMP Isneg
paŋ-alaʔ to get, etc.
Ifugaw (Batad)
paŋ-āla instrument used to get something
Tae'
paŋ-ala geloŋ leader of song group in the maro ceremony
Formosan Kanakanabu
um-á-ala to take
WMP Bontok
ʔ<um>ála to get
Ifugaw
um-ála get, take
Buginese
m-ala get, fetch, obtain
Formosan Pazeh
araʔ-en be received, accepted
WMP Ilokano
alá-en take, get, go and get
Bontok
ʔalá-ʔən get
Ifugaw (Batad)
ala-ʔon get
Malagasy
ala-ìna be fetched; be taken, be summoned, be called, be invited; be chosen, be preferred
WMP Kadazan Dusun
ahaʔ defeat, overcome, conquer
Ngaju Dayak
alah lose, be overcome (in battle, legal matters); lose things
Iban
alah beaten, defeated; subdue, vanquish
Malay
alah defeat; being worsted in battle
Rejang
aleaʔ defeated
Old Javanese
alah lose, be defeated, be worsted, give away, succumb
Balinese
alah destroy, defeat, abandon; destruction
Buginese
p-ala to win
WMP Kadazan Dusun
ka-aha be able to overcome, beat or conquer
Ngaju Dayak
k-alah lose, be overcome
Malay
k-alah a condition or position of inferiority
Balinese
ka-alah destroy, defeat
WMP Kadazan Dusun
maŋ-aha defeat, overcome
Old Javanese
maŋ-alah give in, admit oneself beaten
Balinese
ŋ-alah destroy, defeat, abandon
WMP Cebuano
álaʔ be mistaken for another person
Balinese
alah be like, resemble
WMP Kalamian Tagbanwa
alawid far
Agutaynen
alawid far, a great distance
Palawan Batak
ʔaláwid far
Ma'anyan
lawit far
Malagasy
lávitra far, distant
Samihim
lawit far
Dusun Witu
lawit far
WMP Yami
aom a type of plant:: Melanolepis multiglandulosa
Itbayaten
axem a tree with yellowish-greenish fruit and flower: Melanolepis multiglandulosa
Ilokano
álem kind of shrub with greenish-yellow flowers
Tagalog
alim a shrub or tree: Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Madulid 2001)
Hanunóo
ʔalúm a tree: Melanolepis multiglandulosa
Cebuano
álum kind of small tree with itchy leaves which are used as a poultice, Melanolepis multiglandulosa
Mansaka
arem a shrub or tree: Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Madulid 2001)
WMP Tausug
alum a bruise (black and blue spot on the body)
Lun Dayeh
alem evening
Kelabit
alem night
CMP East Damar
alam night
Formosan Saisiyat (Taai)
alikæh quick, fast
WMP Singhi Land Dayak
rikas quick
Sangir
liŋkasəʔ energetic; a quick and strong man
Mongondow
ko-likat be quick about it!; speed
mo-likat quick, fast
WMP Ilokano
alíla maid, servant
Casiguran Dumagat
alila to take care of (as to take care of someone’s domestic animal for him, or to take care of a sick person)
Pangasinan
alíla servant; to care for (esp. children)
Ayta Abellan
alili servant, one who serves another (for pay)
Tagalog
alílaʔ servant; houseboy; housemaid; domestic (Formosan only)
Formosan Kavalan
marim forget for a moment, slip one’s mind
Paiwan
alim forget something/someone
m-alim forget (object/person)
ma-alim be forgotten; be caused to forget
s-alim busy, preoccupied
WMP Gaddang
alinaw shadow
Mongondow
olinow shadow, that is shadow-image
WMP Ngaju Dayak
alih change, alteration, evasion
Iban
alih change
Malay
aléh veer, change, shift one's position
Toba Batak
ali in place of
maŋ-ali-i replace
Rejang
aliaʔ move, transfer (of an individual or group)
Sundanese
alih move, change residence
Old Javanese
alih moving to another place, changing
Javanese
alih act of moving (changing residence); (having been) moved from one place to another
OC Mota
al to move
ali-al move from place to place
WMP Isneg
alitán firebrand, half-burned wood
Nias
alitõ fire
Formosan Kavalan
arim a long body part adjacent to the liver: pancreas
Bunun
alim pancreas
WMP Maranao
alob roast, blacken by heating
Tiruray
ʔalub warm or dry something briefly over a fire
Old Javanese
alub put in the fire, heat
Javanese
alub to parboil (vegetables) by placing them in hot water briefly
WMP Maranao
aror raft
Tiruray
ʔarur a raft
feg-arur to ride a raft
Tombonuwo
alud canoe
Ida'an Begak
alud boat
bəg-alud ride a boat
Lun Dayeh
alud a boat
Tabun
alod boat
Kelabit
alud dugout canoe, boat
ŋ-alud carry things in a boat
Berawan (Long Terawan)
alun boat, canoe
Miri
alud boat
Sebop
alut boat, canoe
Kenyah (Lepu Anan)
alut boat, canoe
Kiput
alot boat, canoe
ŋ-alot paddle a canoe
Bintulu
alud boat
Dohoi
alʸut canoe
Katingan
alur boat
Singhi Land Dayak
orud boat, canoe
Formosan Thao
ruza boat, canoe
maka-ruza paddle a boat
WMP Karo Batak
er-luga to paddle (Joustra 1912)
Toba Batak
mar-luga to row, pull an oar
Nias
aluxa rudder, steering paddle
maŋ-aluxa to steer a canoe
Palauan
mə-iús row, paddle; stir
OC Tolai (Nokon)
alus to paddle
Formosan Kavalan
paluna paddle, oar; to paddle, to row
Thao
pa-ruza boat, canoe; a canoe paddle
WMP Gaddang
paluwa to paddle
Subanun (Sindangan)
pɨlula to paddle
OC Likum
heluh to paddle
Cheke Holo
valuha paddle
Arosi
haruta to paddle
Southeast Ambrym
hælis to paddle, row
Bonkovia
walua paddle (Formosan only)
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæL-ʔæLozæh ant sp.
Amis (Kiwit)
alunah large variety of ant
WMP Tagalog
alulóŋ distant howling or barking of dogs
Malay
mə-loloŋ to give a long-drawn howl, esp. of dogs
OC Lau
lulu to bark in unison, of dogs
WMP Bontok
ʔáluŋ to shelter; to get into the shade
Cebuano
áluŋ cast a shadow over something
Maranao
aloŋ shadow, see dimly
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
aluŋ shadow, reflection
Tiruray
ʔaluŋ shade
Tboli
oluŋ shadow, reflection
Sasak
aluŋ screened, shaded
CMP Soboyo
ka-m-aloŋ shadow
baka-m-aloŋ shaded
OC Arosi
m-aru(-na) shade; to shadow, overshadow
Tongan
m-alu shaded or sheltered
Rennellese
m-agu shade, shelter, protection; to shade, shelter, protect
WMP Isneg
alután firebrand, half-burned wood
Bontok
ʔalutə́n pieces of split log when placed on a fire; firewood
Ifugaw
alutón pieces of wood that are not, or not wholly burned and still lie in the hearth
Bisaya
luton firewood
Kenyah (Long Wat)
luten fire
Kayan
luten firebrand, partly burnt stick; faggots
Iban
lutan charred wood, cold embers, litter of charred logs in burned clearing; unburned logs
Mongondow
oluton remains of firewood in the hearth, pieces of smoldering wood
CMP Tetun
haʔi lutan burning brand
SHWNG Gimán
lutan fire
Sawai
luten fire
OC Mota
lito firewood
WMP Sambal (Botolan)
amak mat
Hanunóo
ʔamák woven mat, especially one made of buri-palm leaves and used for sleeping purposes
Aklanon
amák-an mat of woven bamboo
Cebuano
amák-an bamboo matting woven with a kind of twill weave, commonly used for walling (the weft is passed over two and under two warp pieces); weave amákan
in-amák-an something woven like amákan
Aborlan Tagbanwa
amak-an reed mat used to dry rice
Toba Batak
amak mat woven of bulrushes
amah-amak straw that is scattered under the ears of rice after the stalks are trampled to separate the grain
amak podom-an sleeping mat
WMP Bontok
ʔáman careful or deliberate, esp. of an undesirable activity
Hanunóo
ʔáman care, carefulness
Aklanon
áman to beware of, be careful with
WMP Cebuano
amáŋ-amáŋ have the nerve to do something which an ordinary person wouldn't dare do
Iban
amaŋ menace, threaten, aim (weapon) at; (hence) test, try (someone)
Malay
amaŋ defiance
amaŋ amaŋ to challenge
Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-amaŋ amaŋ frighten someone, threaten (by pointing a weapon at them, etc.)
WMP Tiruray
ʔamaʔ to eat
Balinese
amah eat
WMP Tiruray
ʔamaʔ-an the place on the floor where people are eating; by recent extension, a table
Balinese
amah-an wood eaten into dust (by worms); cooked rice
WMP Cebuano
amagá a forest tree: Diospyros sp.
Malay
mara keluaŋ a tree: Melanorrhoea curtisii, Melanorrhoea pubescents W.
Tae'
mara tree with beautiful black wood, of which blowpipes are made
Makassarese
amara tree with strong wood used to make the shafts of lances and pikes, and also formerly used to make the finishing planks of royal canoes
WMP Hanunóo
ʔámat continuity, continuousness
Agutaynen
amat-amat little by little (of continuous effort)
Iban
amat true, real, certain, authentic
Malay
amat very; exceedingly; after an adjective it means excess
OC Seimat
amatu a large reef fish, probably double-headed
Patpatar
amatu large green fish
Kove
amatu double-headed parrotfish
Formosan Sakizaya
w-amaʔ father
Amis
w-ama father
ama father (Hualien county)
Thao
ama father
Tsou
amó father
Saaroa
amaʔa father
Siraya (Gravius)
ama father
Rukai (Budai)
ama father (addr.)
Proto-Rukai
*ama father
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
ama father, uncle
Paiwan
ama father!
WMP Yami
ama father
Ilokano
amá father. Also said of persons that are old enough to be one's father
Ibanag
y-ama father
Isneg
amā father. Sometimes: uncle or any relative whose relationship is similar to that of a father
Itawis
amá father
Malaweg
amá father
Bontok
ʔamá married man; adult male, one who has had a child; an old man, one who has grandchildren and who knows the prayers; be big, of children, male or female, especially newborn, also of sweet potatoes
ʔáma term of address for one's male relatives at the first ascending generation level; father; uncle; father-in-law
Kankanaey
amá father; parent; sire
áma my father
Ifugaw
amá father
Casiguran Dumagat
áma father (reference)
Pangasinan
amá father
Tagalog
amá father, progenitor; founder
Buhid
maŋ-ama husband
Aklanon
amá(h) father
Cebuano
ama námuʔ the Lord's prayer
amá expression uttered when frightened: help!
Yakan
s-ama father
Kadazan Dusun
ama father (addr.)
Bekatan
ama father
Melanau (Matu)
amah father
Ngaju Dayak
ama uncle (term used for one's own uncle; for the uncle of another person one uses mama); also often used for other older unrelated persons
Singhi Land Dayak
s-ama father
Tsat
ma¹¹ father
Jarai
ama father
Rhade
ama father
ma father (children's speech)
Gayō
ama father
Simalur
ama father
Nias
ama father, uncle (also more distant relatives), father-in-law
Mentawai
ama father
Enggano
ama father; father-in-law
Gorontalo
tiy-amo father
Uma
tu-ama father
Mori
ama father
Buginese
ama father
Wolio
ama father
Bonerate
ama father
Muna
ama father
Popalia
ama father
CMP Bimanese
ama father
Donggo
ama father
Keo
ema father
Riung
ame father
Sika
ama father
Lamaholot
ama father (used only in traditional ceremonies)
Adonara
ama father
Kédang
amo father
Waiyewa
ama father
Lamboya
ama father
Anakalangu
ama father
Kambera
ama father, FB
Hawu
àma father
Rotinese
ama father
Tetun
ama-n father, FB
Vaikenu
ama-f father
Kemak
ama-kai father
Galoli
ama father
Erai
ama(n) father, father's brother and the other male members of father's lineage and generation
Leti
ama father
Selaru
ama father
Yamdena
ame father, FB, MZH
Kei
yama-n father
Kola
ama- father
Ujir
ema father
Dobel
sama father
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)
ama father
Elat
ama father
Bonfia
yama father
Teluti
ama-colo father
Paulohi
ama father
Alune
ama father
Saparua
ama father
Asilulu
ama father (archaic); a rank in the village hierarchy related to adat
Morella
ama father
Buruese
ama father; ancestor; son. Used as 'son' in address only
Soboyo
n-ama father
Sekar
yama father
OC Kaniet
tama- father
Yabem
tama father
Labu
ama father
Watut
rama- father
Wampar
rama-n father
Patep
ma father
Ubir
tama- father
Suau
tama- father
Hula
ama father
Mekeo (East)
am father
Lakona
tama- father
Lametin
tama- father
Toak
temo-x father
Formosan Siraya
dama father
WMP Agta (Central Cagayan)
deme father (ref.)
Melanau (Sarikei)
dama-m your father (used by persons of GP's generation in speaking to GC)
Simalur
da-ama the fathers
Old Javanese
r-āma father, also used for uncle, guru, etc.; eldest, senior (in religious community, village, army)
Javanese
rămă father; older and/or higher-ranking male
Formosan [Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
maR-tama father and child]
WMP Itbayaten
mi-ama father and child
Isneg
magga-amā father and child(ren)
[Bikol
mag-amá-ʔ father and child]
Aklanon
mag-amá related as father and child
Simalur
mal-ama have a father
Formosan Thao
ti ama father (ref.)
WMP Yakan
s-ama father
Singhi Land Dayak
s-ama father
Gorontalo
tiy-amo father
Lauje
si ama father
Dampelas
si amaŋ father
Formosan Saisiyat
t-amæh father
Seediq (Truku)
tama father
Bunun
tama father
Bunun (Takituduh)
t-amah father
Rukai (Budai)
t-áma father (ref.)
Rukai (Tanan)
t-amá father (ref.)
Paiwan
tjama father (familiar, usually in questions to child)
WMP Kadazan Dusun
tama father (ref.)
Belait
tamah father
Lun Dayeh (Long Semado)
tama-n father
Kelabit
te-tameh father (ref.)
Berawan (Long Terawan)
tameh father
Berawan (Batu Belah)
t-amah father (ref.)
Narum
tamah father (ref.)
Miri
tama father
Kenyah (Long Wat)
t-amen father (ref.)
Kayan (Long Atip)
t-ama-n father (ref.)
Kiput
tama father
Bintulu
tama father
Melanau (Mukah)
tama father
Banggai
tama father
Bungku
tama father
Moronene
tama man/male; father
Palauan
ʔə-dám father (addr.)
dəmá- paternal GP
ua-dám old man (term of reference for older male in-law)
SHWNG Buli
hmā father, FB
Dusner
tama- father
Wandamen
tama- father
Windesi
tama father
Ron
kama- father
Numfor
kema father (ref.)
kma father
Pom
tama- father
Ansus
tama- father
Papuma
tama- father
OC Nauna
tama- father
Lou
tama- father
Nali
tama- father
Andra
tamo father
Leipon
time- father
Ahus
tama-n his/her father
Likum
tama- father
Ponam
dama father
Seimat
tam(a)- father
Wuvulu
ama- father
Mussau
tama- father
Tigak
tama- father
Tabar
tama- father
Mendak
tama- father
Tolai
tama(-na) father, father and child, or the relationship between them or between them and the father's brothers
Vitu
tama- father
Arop
tama- father
Biliau
tama- father
Amara
teme father
Kove
tama father
Lakalai
tama- father, FB
Sengseng
re-tama father (ref.)
Tarpia
tama- father
Wogeo
tama- father
Manam
tama- father, uncle
Gedaged
tama- father, FB, son, MZH (w.s.); FB, MZH (m.s.); lord, master, guardian; owner, composer, originator, inventor
Sio
tama father
Gitua
tama- father, FB, MZH
Numbami
tama- father (term of third person reference)
Wampar
rama- father
Sinaugoro
tama father
Adzera
rama-n father
Motu
tama- father
Roro
hama- father
Kilivila
tama- father, FB, FZS, MZH
Dobuan
tama- father
Molima
tama- father
Saliba
tama father
Misima
tama- father
Nehan
tama- father
tama- father
Haku
tama- father
Selau
tama-gla father
Piva
a tama- father
Banoni
tama- father
Uruava
tama- father
Babatana
tama-e father
Roviana
tama-na father
Eddystone/Mandegusu
tama- father, grandfather, uncle
Bugotu
tama-ña father
Nggela
tama father (ref.); those of his standing in a man's clan
Lau
ama-na father
Sa'a
ama father, FB
Gilbertese
tama father
Marshallese
jema father, FB
Pohnpeian
sahm father, any person one's father would call brother
Chuukese
saam one who is a father, fathers (when used without a possessive suffix); father, grandfather, uncle, any male relative of higher generation in one's own or one's spouse's father's lineage
Woleaian
tam(a) father; father's side, patrilineality
Ulithian
tama- father
Motlav
i-tme-k my father
Mota
tama-i father, in relation to individuals
Mosina
tomo- father
Piamatsina
tama- father
Sakao
ðana- father
Malmariv
tama- father
Mafea
tam̈a- father
Amblong
tama- father
Marino
tama- father
Central Maewo
tama father
Raga
tama father
Apma
tema- father
Atchin
tima- father
Southeast Ambrym
tame father, FB, FFF, MZH (w.s.), BS, HZS
Nakanamanga
tama father
Sie
e-tme-n father
Anejom
e-tma- father
Fijian
tama father, FB, MZH
Tongan
tama-i father, FB
Samoan
tama-a father
Kapingamarangi
dama-na father, uncle; big, large (singular)
Nukuoro
dama-na father, uncle, senior male relative, male elder, person in a fatherly relationship
Rennellese
tama-na classificatory father; to have a classificatory father
Rarotongan
tama term used as a respectful manner of address to a man, being equivalent to the English word, sir
e tama! interjection, exclamation which denotes 'I say!', 'oh dear!', 'bother'; sometimes used as an exclamation of surprise or annoyance
Maori
tama man
WMP Bontok
ka-ʔama-ʔən uncle
Aklanon
ka-amah-án <A fatherhood
Toba Batak
ha-ama-on paternity, fatherhood
WMP Rungus Dusun
kam-ama-n FB, MB
Bisaya (Limbang)
kem-ama-n MB, MZ
kem-ama-n mianay FB
kem-ama-n kekimuʔ FZ
Kiput
kəm-ama-n uncle
Mentawai
kam-ama-an FB, FZ
WMP Nias
fa-ʔama call father
OC Samoan
faʔa-tama-a treat like a father
WMP Toba Batak
par-ama-on relationship of children to their father
Javanese
p-ama-n uncle; uncle who is a parent's younger brother; older man of lower status than speaker
[Tontemboan
pa-ama-ŋ-an anything that serves as a sign of the relationship, or the reason for the relationship between father and child]
WMP Boano
pogi-ama-ŋ-an uncle
OC Sa'a
mu hei ama-da fathers and children
Fijian
vei-tama-ni father and son relationship: applied to animals (cp. also Toba Batak par-ama-on 'relationship of children to their father')
Rennellese
hai-tama-na classificatory father in relation to his children; to be such
WMP Ifugaw
ama-ān thumb
[Palawan Batak
ʔamāy-an FB]
Cebuano
amah-an father
Mentawai
amaʔ-an corpulent, easy, comfortable (given by Morris 1900 under āma 'father')
WMP Itbayaten
ama-en father-in-law, one considered as father, foster father
Kalinga
amaʔ-on uncle, great uncle
Cebuano
amáʔ-un godfather in any ceremony
Mamanwa
amaʔ-en uncle
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
amə-ŋ father (vocative)
Tagalog
amá-ŋ (in some localities) elder person
Hanunóo
ʔamá-ŋ father (vocative)
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
amaŋ father
Tapuh
emaŋ father
Toba Batak
amáŋ vocative: oh, father!
Sangir
i amaŋ father
Tontemboan
amaŋ father
Totoli
amaŋ father
CMP Manggarai
ama-ŋ FZH, HF, MB, WF
WMP Itbayaten
amaʔ father
Bikol
amáʔ father
Hanunóo
ʔámaʔ father (particularly in the nominative)
Kalamian Tagbanwa
amaʔ father
Palawan Batak
ʔamáʔ father (particularly in the nominative)
Maranao
amaʔ father
Subanen/Subanun
gamaʔ father
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
amaʔ father (direct address)
Mansaka
amaʔ father
Bonggi
ameʔ father
Tboli
maʔ father
Samal
ɨmmaʔ father
Murut (Timugon)
amaʔ father
Ida'an Begak
amaʔ father
Murut (Tagol)
amaʔ father
Kenyah (Long Wat)
amaʔ father (add.)
Kenyah (Long Selaaʻn)
amaʔ father
Bukat
amaʔ father
Lahanan
amaʔ father
Tunjung
maʔ father
Maloh
amaʔ father
Madurese
emmaʔ father
Sasak
amaʔ father
Sangir (Siau)
amaʔ father
Sangir (Tamako)
amaʔ father
Bantik
(i)amaʔ father
Tondano
amaʔ father
Mongondow
amaʔ father; sometimes also mother, and uncle
Makassarese
amma father
CMP Manggarai
ema F, FB, MZH
Ngadha
ema father; favorite son
Atoni
amaʔ father
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
amáy uncle
Hiligaynon
amáy father
Palawan Batak
ʔamay-an FB
Binukid
amay father, vocative. Term of address for one's father
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
amey father (reference)
Manobo (Sarangani)
amay father
Kenyah (Long Anap)
amay father
Kayan
amei father (vocative); polite address to an older man
[Siang
tamay father]
Dusun Malang
amai father
Ngaju Dayak
amai father
CMP Ngadha
ame father, uncle, nephew
Riung
ame father
WMP Bontok
ʔam-ʔamá an old man, one who has grandchildren and who knows the prayers
Kankanaey
am-ʔamá old man
Aklanon
áma-áma stepfather
Cebuano
ama-áma stepfather
[Maranao
amaʔ amaʔ stepfather]
[Binukid
amay-amay stepfather]
Mansaka
ama-ama big man
Toba Batak
ama-ama everyone who is called father
Wolio
ka-ama-ama adopted father (an older person of one's own choice with whom one has a friendly relationship)
WMP Cebuano
ambák jump down to a lower place
ambák-ambák jump up and down
Manobo (Kalamansig Cotabato)
ambak collide with something (person, post, etc.)
Mandar
ambaʔ hit, beat
Makassarese
ambaʔ try to hit something in a game (one marble with another, billiard ball, etc.)
CMP Yamdena
ambak stamp on the ground with the foot
WMP Iban
əmbawaŋ a wild mango
Sichule
ambawaŋ kind of large mango
WMP Malay
ambai purse-net attached to stakes in a tideway or river. The stakes hold its mouth open; the bunt trails away in the current
Toba Batak
m-abe-abe wave back and forth
Old Javanese
away beckon, wave (to)
Javanese
awe-awe to wave
Lauje
ambe beckon with the hand
WMP Sundanese
amben belly strap of a horse
Javanese
amben belly band for draft animal
Tae'
abaŋ band, as an iron band around a chisel
Makassarese
ambaŋ belly strap of horses
WMP Maranao
abet strap
Tiruray
ʔambet catch a loose animal by entwining it in a rope
Kelabit
abet way of tying; thing used to tie
ŋ-abet to tie
Ngaju Dayak
ambet brought near, drawn to one, seized
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
abUt securing devices: pin, band, tie, string, belt
Malay
ambat noose
Malay (Jakarta)
ambet child's first garment; swaddling band
Alas
abet coil; cloth that is wound around the body
Old Javanese
ambet to lash
Balinese
ambet strap
ambet basaŋ saddle-girth
WMP Kapampangan
ambi wing or interior gallery of a house (Bergaño 1860)
Tagalog
ambíʔ eaves, gable end
Karo Batak
ambih make an extension to a house that is too small
Toba Batak
ambi what one adds; the piece of material that a tailor adds to trousers that are too small
Sundanese
ambé-n gallery, veranda of a house
Balinese
ambé-n front balcony, porch, veranda, gallery
Sasak
ambé-n side-wings of a roof; side-gallery of a house
WMP Samal
ambit lead by the hand
Kadazan Dusun
ambit take with the hands
Toba Batak
ambit carry a child in the arms
Mentawai
abit take along with, bring hither
CMP Manggarai
ambét carrying astraddle on the hip (as in carrying a child); climb (a tree) with a rope looped around the feet
OC Numbami
-ambi hold, get, take
WMP Kadazan Dusun
maŋ-ambit take with the hands
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
meŋ-ambit fetch or take in a figurative sense: take a woman from her lineage because she must reside with the lineage of her husband
Toba Batak
maŋ-ambit carry
WMP Kadazan Dusun
mag-ambit take with the hands
Toba Batak
mar-ambit carry a child in the arms in front of oneself
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
ambún thin, overcast, hazy (sky)
Kapampangan
ambun dew
may-ambun overcast, misty
Tagalog
ambón shower, drizzle
Bikol
ambón dew; fog, mist, haze
Aklanon
ámbon fog, mist, haze
ma-ámbon foggy, covered with haze, hazy
Kalamian Tagbanwa
ambun ground fog, mist
Bisaya (Limbang)
ambun fog
Murik
abun cloud, fog
Bintulu
ambun fog
Ngaju Dayak
ambon dew, fog
Banjarese
ambun dew
Iban
ambun dew, damp
Maloh
ambun dew, vapor
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
ambun dew (in small drops)
Singhi Land Dayak
abun cloud, fog
Minangkabau
ambun dew
Sundanese
awun-awun morning mist, fog, haziness
Old Javanese
awun-awun fine rain, wet mist
ambun cloud (or mist?)
Javanese
awun dew
Sasak
awun-awun fog, mist
Gorontalo
wambulo fog
Tae'
ambun dew, morning mist
WMP Malagasy
ávona pride, haughtiness, arrogance
Iban
amboŋ proud, haughty
WMP Cebuano
ambúʔ overlook, look from a high point (as in looking at someone downstairs), tower over
Malagasy
ámbo high, lofty, long, overhead
ávo high, lofty, eminent
WMP Sambal (Botolan)
kun-n-awən 1pl ex oblique
Tagalog
ámin 1pl ex oblique
Central Palawan
d-amen 1pl ex oblique
Aborlan Tagbanwa
amen 1pl ex oblique
Sungai Seguliud
ŋ-amon 1pl ex oblique
Ida'an Begak
n-amon 1pl ex oblique
Murut (Kolod)
d-amon 1pl ex oblique
Formosan Thao
yamin 1pl ex accusative and absolute possessive pronoun
Proto-Bunun
*ð-amun 1sg acc (Ross 2006:533)
WMP Yami
y-amen we (nominative case) exclusive
Ibatan
y-amen 1pl ex topicalized nominative pronoun, fronted agent pronoun
dy-amen 1pl ex dative and emphatic possessive marker
WMP Cebuano (SE Bohol)
ameʔ 1pl ex oblique
Murut (Kalabakan)
r-amoʔ 1pl ex oblique
Formosan Atayal (Squliq)
s-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Pazeh
ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
WMP Remontado
si-kami 1pl., excl., we (exclusive)
Subanon
ami lpl., excl., we
Bulungan
ami 1pl. excl. genitive, our
Kenyah (Long Anap)
ameɁ pat 1pl. excl., we
Penan (Long Labid)
ameɁ tələw we three, excl.
Simalur
ami 1pl. excl., we, us
Tajio
si-ami 1pl. excl., we
Balaesang
s-ami 1pl. excl., we
CMP Manggarai (Central)
ami 1pl. excl., we
Rotinese
ami 1pl. excl., we
Tetun (Dili)
ami 1pl. excl., we
Mambai
aim <M 1pl. excl., we
Luang
ami we (excl.)
Selaru
ar-ami 1pl. excl., we, us
Kamarian
ami 1pl. excl., we, us
Alune
ami 1pl. excl., we, us
Larike
ami lst pl. excl., we
SHWNG Gimán
am 1pl. excl., we
As
am we (excl.)
Minyaifuin
am-ne 1pl. excl., we (excl.)
OC Mbula
ni-am 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Formosan Saisiyat
y-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Proto-Atayalic
*i-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Pazeh
y-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Bunun
ð-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
WMP Kalamian Tagbanwa
y-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Subanun (Sindangan)
y-ami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Mandar
i-amiɁ 1pl. excl., we
CMP Onin
i-ami 1pl. excl.
WMP Bontok
ʔátul the top row of rocks around the rock wall of a pig pen
Palauan
kəmám 1pl. excl. emphatic pronoun, we, us
OC Tanga
kemem 1pl. excl., we all, all of us
Proto-Western Micronesian
*ka(a)mami 1pl. excl., we, us
Sonsorol-Tobi
xame̲m 1pl. excl., we, us
Mota
kamam 1pl. excl., we, us
Merig
kamem 1pl. excl., we, us
Tasiriki
komam 1pl. excl. focal and object, we, us
Seke
kamam 1pl. excl., we, us
Wayan
kemam 1pl. excl., topic pronoun
Formosan Amis
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
WMP Itbayaten
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Ivatan
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Ibatan
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Ilokano
da-kamí ~ si- kamí 1pl excl. independent pronoun, we
Isneg
kamí ~ da-kamí 1pl. excl. nominative and accusative pronoun, we
Itawis
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Bontok
da-kamí 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Casiguran Dumagat
kame 1pl. excl. topic pronoun, we
Ilongot
si-kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Hanunóo
kamí we (exclusive)
Palawan Batak
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Aborlan Tagbanwa
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Mamanwa
kam 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Mansaka
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Kalagan
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Bilaan (Sarangani)
gami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Tausug
kami 1pl. excl. topic pronoun, we, to us, for us
Bisaya (Limbang)
jamiɁ 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Bulungan
kami 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Lun Dayeh (Long Semado)
kay 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Kelabit
kamih 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Berawan (Long Terawan)
kammeh 1pl. excl., we, us
Tring
kamih 1pl. excl. nominative, we
Narum
hamay 1pl. excl., we, us
Sebop
kami luɁ we, three or more, excl.
Kenyah (Long Wat)
kaməy 1pl. excl., we, us
Murik
kameɁ 1pl. excl., we, us
Kayan (Uma Juman)
kameɁ 1pl. excl., we, us
Kiput
kamay 1pl. excl., we, us
Bintulu
mə-ləw 1pl. excl., we (3 or more), us
Melanau (Balingian)
mə-tələw 1pl. excl., we (3 or more), us
Melanau (Mukah)
mə-ləw 1pl. excl., we (3 or more), us
Melanau Dalat
kaməy 1pl. excl., we, us
Bekatan
kai 1pl. excl., we
Melanau (Matu)
kamiɁ 1pl. excl., we, us
Tunjung
kamiɁ 1pl. excl., we, us
Lawangan
kai-n 1pl. excl., we, us
Dusun Witu
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Iban
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Tsat
mi³³ 1pl. excl., we
Jarai
ɓiŋ gəməy 1pl. excl., we, us
Malay
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Acehnese
kamɔə 1pl. excl., we, us
Gayō
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Karo Batak
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Toba Batak
hami 1pl. excl., we, us
Mentawai
kai 1pl. excl., we, us
Enggano
Ɂai 1pl. excl., we, us
Sundanese
kami lst sg. (used with someone of lower rank)
Old Javanese
kami lst person pronoun (sg. and pl.)
Sasak
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Sangir
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Proto-Minahasan
*kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Tondano
key 1pl. excl., we, us
Tontemboan
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Mongondow
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Gorontalo
Ɂami 1pl. excl., we; term of address to an older man (esp. to Arabs)
Totoli
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Pendau
Ɂami 1pl. excl., we
Banggai
i-kami 1pl. excl. independent pronoun, we, us
-kami 1pl. excl. accusative pronoun, us
Uma
kaiɁ ~ kamiɁ 1pl. excl., we, us
Bare'e
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Tae'
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Mori Atas
i-kami 1pl. excl., we
Duri
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Wolio
(iŋ)-kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Chamorro
ham 1pl. excl., we, us
CMP Manggarai
hami 1pl. excl., we
Ngadha
gami 1pl. excl., we, us
Keo
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Ende
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Sika
ami 1pl. excl., we
Lamaholot
kame 1pl. excl., we, us
Adonara
kame we (excl.)
Solorese
kamé 1pl. excl. possessor
Helong
kaim <M 1pl. excl., we
Atoni
hai 1pl excl., we, us
Tetun
ami 1pl. excl., we
Galoli
gami 1pl. excl., we, us
Erai
ami 1pl. excl., we, us
Talur
gami we (excl.)
Buruese
kam 1pl. subject, we
kami 1pl. object, us
Tifu
kami we (excl.)
Soboyo
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
SHWNG Kowiai/Koiwai
am 1pl. excl., we, us
Irarutu
am we (excl.)
Waropen
ami 1pl. excl., we, us
OC Seimat
ami- 1pl. excl. subject pronoun
Wuvulu
ai 1pl. excl. subject pronoun
Sursurunga
gim <M we (excl.)
Tanga
kem 1pl. excl., we, us
Bali (Uneapa)
ghami 1pl exclusive subject pronoun
Lakalai
ami-lua 1dl. excl. subject and object pronoun
ami-teu 1pl. excl. subject and object pronoun
Kis
am we (excl.?)
Gitua
-gai 1pl. excl. object, us
Suau
ʔai ‘1pl. excl., we’
Motu
ai 1pl. excl., we, us
Saliba
kai we (excl.)
Kokota
gai 1pl. excl., we, us
Hoava
γami 1pl. excl., we
Roviana
gami 1pl. excl., we, us
Marovo
hami 1pl. excl., we, us
Zabana
ɣai we (excl.)
Nggela
gami ~ gai 1pl. excl., we, us
Ghari
i-hami 1pl. excl., we, us
Lau
gami 1pl. excl., we; subject or suffixed
Proto-Micronesian
*kami we (exclusive), us
Marshallese (Eastern)
kémʷ we (exclusive), us
Marshallese (Western)
kém we (exclusive), us
Chuukese
áám 1pl. excl., we, us
Marino
kami 1pl. excl., we, us
Maewo
kami 1pl. excl., focal, subject, and object pronoun
Sie
kam we
Proto-Polynesian
*kima <M 1pl. excl., focal pronoun, we
WMP Pendau
m-ami 1pl. excl. genitive, our
Tialo
m-ami 1pl. excl. genitive, our
OC Bugotu
-mami 1pl. excl. possessive, our
Sa'a
-memi 1pl. excl. possessive, our
Arosi
-mami 1pl. excl. possessive, our
Mota
-mami 1pl. excl. possessive, our
Maewo
-mami 1pl. excl. possessive, our
Fijian
-mami 1pl. excl. possessive, our
Formosan Rukai (Budai)
-nai 1pl. excl. nominative and genitive
Rukai (Maga)
namɨ 1pl. excl. nominative and genitive
WMP Mongondow
-nami 1pl excl. agent and possessor
CMP Bimanese
nami 1pl excl., we
Manggarai
nami we say
Lamboya
nami 1pl. excl., we
SHWNG Kurudu
nami 1pl. excl., we
WMP Malagasy
amíana shrubs with large stinging hairs
Iban
miaŋ irritants produced by plants; irritating; irritated (as by paddy dust or bamboo) (Scott 1956), minute bristles on bamboos and other plants; irritation of skin caused by them (Richards 1981)
Malay
miaŋ itchiness; the fine hairs on certain plants (as bamboo) that cause itchiness when touched
Formosan Bunun
amin all
Paiwan
amin finished; there is no more, there is no other than
pu-amin complete, terminate, leave
WMP Ilokano
ámin all; total, entire, complete, whole
ámin no whatever
Isneg
ámin all
Bontok
ʔamín use up, consume
Ifugaw (Batad)
amin do all, complete something, exhaust a supply, as of food, money; all, exclusively
Pangasinan
amín all
Kapampangan
amin consume, finish
Maranao
amin formula used in ending prayer; so be it
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
amin complete; consume; use up
WMP Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
ampal large cockroach
Old Javanese
ampal a particular kind of beetle
Javanese
ampal beetle
WMP Ilokano
ampáw empty shell, nut, etc.
Tagalog
ampáw puffed rice or corn
Bikol
ampáw puffed rice
Aklanon
ámpaw popped rice candy
Cebuano
ampáw delicacy consisting of puffed rice coated with caramel and stuck into bricks
Maranao
ampaw popped rice
CMP Buruese
apa-n empty (grain) hull
WMP Malay
emperit finch
Toba Batak
amporik rice bird
WMP Kapampangan
ampat stanch the flow of blood; stop, detain, check the progress of (Bergaño 1860)
Bikol
ampát <A stop, put a stop to, quell, suppress
Malagasy
mi-àfitra to stay, to halt, to be arrested in one's progress
Javanese
ampet to check, restrain
Balinese
ampet stanch, stop the flow
WMP Tagalog
ampías rain entering through open or cracked windows, doors, walls, etc.
Iban
empias drops of driven rain (e.g. drops of rain blown onto a table by a window, drops of rain driven into a room)
Malay
t-empias deflected (and so beating in), as rain; commonly of slanting rain
Malay (Jakarta)
t-ampias raindrops that spatter or splash in
WMP Kankanaey
ampík pat, tap lightly
Banjarese
ampik clap
WMP Toba Batak
maŋ-ampin in weaving, to roll up a woven cloth because it would otherwise be too long for the arms
sa-ampin a piece of cloth as large as a woman can weave at one time
Balinese
ampin bunch (of leaves), bundle, pile, heap
Sasak
ampin roll of sirih leaves
Tontemboan
ampin leaf, cloth, etc. with which one seizes something
WMP Bontok
ʔapúk scatter, as a crowd of people or broken beads
Kankanaey
apók spread; scatter; dissipate; expand
Balinese
ampuk widely scattered, dispersed
WMP Kadazan Dusun
ampun pardon, forgive, condone, remit, excuse, absolve
Ngaju Dayak
ampun pardon, forgiveness
Banjarese
ampun pardon
Iban
ampun forgiveness, pardon, submission; apologize, confess
Malay
ampun pardon (of a royal or divine superior showing mercy; forgiveness between equals is maaf, mahap, tabek)
Acehnese
ampōn pardon, forgiveness; apology; remission, absolution
Toba Batak
ampun pardon, forgiveness
Rejang
apun pardon, mercy
apun tuan initial salutation to ancestral spirits in propitiation rites
Sundanese
ampun pardon, forgiveness
Old Javanese
ampun show mercy toward, receive with favor
Balinese
ampun pardon, forgive
Sasak
ampun pardon, forgiveness
Sangir
ampuŋ forgiveness, pardon
Dampelas
ampun pardon, forgiveness
Banggai
ampun forgiveness, pardon
Bare'e
ámpuŋ-i forgiveness, pardon
CMP Manggarai
ampuŋ pardon, forgiveness
WMP Kadazan Dusun
maŋ-ampun pardon, forgive, condone, remit, excuse, absolve
Toba Batak
maŋ-ampun ask for forgiveness, apologize
Sangir
maŋ-ampuŋ pardon, forgive
[Mongondow
moŋ-ampuŋ ask for forgiveness, entreat, implore]
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-ampun-i pardon, forgive
Old Javanese
aŋ-ampun-i show mercy toward, receive with favor
Dampelas
meŋ-ampun-i pardon, forgive
Banggai
moŋ-ompun-i to pardon
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
peŋ-ampun-an forgiveness, absolution
Toba Batak
paŋ-ampun-an apology
Sangir
paŋ-ampuŋ-aŋ one who will be granted forgiveness; one who asks for forgiveness
WMP Malay
ampun-an pardon, apology
Sasak
ampun-an pardon, forgiveness
[Tontemboan
ampuŋ-an be forgiven]
Formosan Kavalan
-imu 1pl. excl. nominative
Proto-Atayalic
*y-amu you (plural)
Amis
amo you (plural)
Bunun
amu 2pl. actor and patient
WMP Kalamian Tagbanwa
y-amu 2pl. nominative, you all
Subanun (Sindangan)
y-amu 2pl. nominative, you all
Formosan Amis
kamo 2pl. nominative, you all
Bunun
kamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Kanakanabu
i-kamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Siraya (Gravius)
kamu 2pl. nom.
WMP Yami (Imorod)
kamo 2pl. nominative, you all
Itbayaten
kamo 2pl. nominative, you all
Ivatan
kamo 2pl. nominative, you all
Ibatan
kamo 2pl. nominative, you all
Casiguran Dumagat
kam 2pl. topic pronoun, you all
Remontado
si-kamu 2pl., you all
Hanunóo
kámu 2pl. nominative, you all
Palawan Batak
kamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Aborlan Tagbanwa
kamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Mamanwa
kamo 2pl. nominative, you all
Mansaka
kamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Kalagan
kamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Bilaan (Sarangani)
gamu 2pl. nominative, you all
Tausug
kamu 2pl. topic pronoun, you all
Lingkabau
kau 2pl. nominative, you all
Berawan (Long Terawan)
kam 2pl., you all
Tring
kam 2pl., you all
Tunjung
kaam 2pl., you all
Lawangan
kam 2pl., you all
Dusun Witu
kau-n 2pl., you all
Malay
kamu you; you all (not discourteous except when addressed to a single person, in which case it is somewhat arrogant)
Gayō
kam 2pl. independent pronoun, you all
Karo Batak
kam ~ kamu polite 2nd person pronoun (sg. and pl.)
Toba Batak
hamu 2pl., you all
Old Javanese
kamu 2nd person (sg. and pl.)
Sasak
kamu 2nd person (sg. and pl.)
Proto-Minahasan
*kamu 2pl., you all
Tondano
kow 2pl., you all
Tontemboan
kamu 2pl., you all
Mongondow
kamu 2pl., you all (used only when a specific number of persons is named, thus: kamu-nda ‘you two’, kamu-(in)-tolu>/wd> ‘you three’, kamu opat ‘you four’)
Totoli
kamú 2pl., you all
Tae'
kamu 2pl., you all; also 2sg. to persons to whom one owes respect
CMP Kambera
-ŋgamu suffixed form of the 2pl. personal pronoun
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)
kem you (pl.)
Alune
amu 2pl. possessive, your
Asilulu
amu 2sg. genitive for alienable possession, your
SHWNG Moor
amu 2pl., you all
Waropen
mu 2pl., you all
OC Tanga
kam(u) 2pl., you all
Lakalai
amu-lua 2dl. subject and object pronoun
amu-tou *k > zero 2pl. subject and object pronoun
Tarpia
kam you (plural)
Ali
am you (pl.)
Mbula
ni-om 2pl. excl. nominative, you
Numbami
amu 2nd person plural free pronoun; you (plural)
Patep
γam 2pl., you
Papapana
amu 2pl.,, you
Kokota
gau 2pl., you all
Hoava
γamu 2pl., you all
Roviana
gamu 2pl., you all
Zabana
ɣau you (plural)
Bugotu
gamu 2pl. focal pronoun, you all
-gamu 2pl. object pronoun, you all
Ghari
i-hamu 2pl., you all
Lau
gamu 2pl., you all; subject or suffixed
Fagani
gamu 2pl. object pronoun, you all
Proto-Micronesian
*kamʷu 2pl., you all
Gilbertese
kam 2pl., you all
Kosraean
kom 2pl., you all
Marshallese
kʷémʷ 2pl., you all
Pohnpeian
komʷ you (honorific)
Lametin
ŋgam you (pl.)
Southeast Ambrym
xami 2pl., you all
Efate (South)
a-kam you (pl.)
Formosan Amis
namo your, by you (agent/possessor form)
Kanakanabu
nimu (?) 2pl. genitive, your
Formosan Saisiyat
moyo 2pl. nominative, you all
WMP Lingkabau
muyu 2pl. genitive, your
Ida'an Begak
muyu 2pl. nominative and genitive; you all, your
Bisaya (Limbang)
muyu-n 2pl. nominative, you all
Lun Dayeh
muyuh 2pl. nominative, you all
Kelabit
muyuh 2pl. nominative, you all
Tajio
si-miu 2pl., you all
Balaesang
miu 2pl., you all
Banggai
i-komuyu 2pl. independent pronoun, you all
-komuyu 2pl. accusative, you all
Bonerate
i-komiu 2pl.; you all
Popalia
komiu 2pl., you all
Palauan
kəmiu 2pl. emphatic, you all
Chamorro
hamyo 2pl., you all
CMP Ngadha
miu 2pl., you all
Ende
miu 2pl., you all
Sika
miu 2pl., you all
Dhao/Ndao
miu 2pl., you all
OC Vitu
hamiu 2pl. genitive, your
Suau
ʔomi 2pl. nom., you all
Motu
umui <M 2pl., you all
Saliba
komiu 2pl.; you all
Sudest
ghemi you, 2pl free pronoun
Bugotu
-miu 2pl. genitive, your
Nggela
gamiu 2pl. genitive, your
Fagani
gamiu 2pl. focal pronoun
-miu 2pl. genitive, your
Raga
kimiu 2pl. focal and object pronoun
-miu 2pl. genitive, your
Leviamp
kam̋i 2pl., you all
WMP Arta
amuluŋ type of wild vine (substitute for betel nut)
Casiguran Dumagat
amulóŋ type of vine which is chewed as a substitute for betel nut; it causes the spittle to turn black
Bikol
amlóŋ vine hanging from trees in the forest and used to make baskets
Hanunóo
ʔamlúŋ any of several varieties of a very useful climbing fern, some of which are used to blacken the teeth
WMP Aklanon
amúma(h) to entertain, take care of
Agutaynen
mag-amoma to entertain visitors, care for their needs; to host visitors, show hospitality to them
Cebuano
amúma to take care of someone and guide him
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
emuma to show affection or good feeling for someone by taking good care of them or by welcoming them
Formosan Atayal
-an suffix forming first passive indicative from the reduced stem, and suffix forming first passive perfect from the reduced stem in connection with the infix -in-. Forms an imperative with the reduced or extra reduced stem. Forms nouns indicating place or time. Common suffix in place names, and less common suffix in personal names (e.g. qalup 'to hunt' : qlup-an 'hunting ground')
Paiwan
-an specific location in time or space; specific one/type: kan-an 'eating place' (kan 'eat')
WMP Ilokano
-an a suffix of general use, mostly locative
Bontok
ʔan a voice-marking suffix, non-completive aspect, which subjectivalizes the locative case relation; a gerundivizing suffix occurring in combination with voice marking affixes... In appropriate contexts it also functions as a temporal or locative suffix
Ifugaw
-an suffix of general use. First, it conveys a locative meaning; it is used to form names of places, or common nouns indicating certain places... Second, -an (like -on) is a suffix which actually verbalizes a given word-base by making it pertain to the so-called passive voice..... The difference between the suffix -on and the suffix -an can be (in some way) clarified as follows: the suffix -on puts in evidence that the meaning of the word-base can be applied and, in fact, is applied to the direct object, while the suffix -an puts in evidence that the meaning of the word-base is only indirectly applicable to the grammatical object
Tagalog
-an the -an suffix usually functions as the affix that focuses attention on the person or object or place toward which the action is directed or where the action is being carried out. Usually the actor focus counterpart of the -an suffix is -um-: b-um-ilí kamí sa kaniyá 'we bought from her (actor focus construction)', b-in-ilh-án namín siyá 'we bought from her (locative focus construction) (Ramos 1981:63)
Bikol
-an 1. verbal affix, locative series, infinitive-command form: dumán 'there, yonder' : duman-án 'come or go to', 2. verbal affix, reflexive action series, infinitive-command form: hugák 'lazy' : hugak-án 'to feel lazy', 3. verbal affix, regular series, infinitive-command form: imbitár 'invite' : imbitar-án 'to invite', 4. alternant command suffix for verbs taking i- in the infinitive: i-abót mo an asín or abot-án an asín 'pass the salt', 5. nominal affix, locative: eskuéla 'student' : eskuelah-án 'school'
Aklanon
-an common suffix denoting a place or a referent. Used with (1) verbs: ginbáke-an sánda it dúlsi 'candy was bought for them', (2) nouns: simbáh-an 'church' (from símba(h) 'worship'), tindáh-an 'market' (from tínda(h) 'goods for sale'), (3) adjectives: baʔbá-an 'talkative' (from báʔbaʔ 'mouth')
Hiligaynon
-an infinitive benefactive-locative focus affix; noun formative affix designating a container or a place where an action occurs
Cebuano
-an local passive verb affix, future; noun forming affix. 1. forming nouns which refer to a place where something is found, done, held, located..., 2. forming nouns which refer to a person possessed of a certain power..., adjective forming suffix 1. forming adjectives which mean 'characterized by being [so-and-so]..., 2. added to nouns to form adjectives which mean 'having [so-and-so]
Maranao
-an a third grammatical relation between the verb and the so-phrase is indicated by the suffix -an: Tabas(an) o bebai so mamaʔ (cut o-woman so-man) 'The man is the one for whom the woman will cut it' or 'The woman will cut it for the man'. Here the action is performed on behalf of the one designated by the particle so. The so-phrase stands in an indirect relation to the verb. It may indirectly receive the action, be the location of the action, or be the associate or beneficiary of the action. The suffix -an thus marks referential voice
Murut (Timugon)
-an associate focus suffix. It occurs with all verbs that are inflected with -um- in the subject focus...The past temporal aspect is formed by the addition of -in- ... to the future temporal forms (e.g. min-oŋoy 'went (active)' : in-aŋay-an 'place where someone went')
Kelabit
-an marker of nouns of location (e.g. irup 'what is drunk; way or manner of drinking' : m-irup 'to drink' : rup-an 'watering hole for animals in the jungle', dalan 'path, road' : nalan 'to walk' : delan-an 'path made by repeated walking over the same course
Malagasy
-ana passives in -ana are often similar in meaning to those in -ina, and are used simply as passives of verbs active transitive in mi- and man-. Often, however, passives in -ina and -ana are made from the same root, and used in different senses, thus: from tàmpoka ('suddenly, unexpectedly') are formed tampóh-ina 'being surprised', and tampóh-ana 'having cold water added'; the passive in a- is of very frequent occurrence. Its primary meaning is said to be that an object is placed in such and such a position...The most difficult use, however, to a learner is when it is made a correlative of the passive in -ana...Many verb that govern two accusatives, one of an object to which something is done, and the other of the instrument, means, etc., with which the action is effected, make the former the nominative case of a passive in -ana, and the latter of a passive in a-... Thus in the sentence manóso tsólika ázy àho 'I anoint it with oil', the body anointed would be made nominative case of the passive hosór-ana ..., and the oil of the verb a-hòsotra
Bahasa Indonesia
-an the suffix -an is used to form nouns from various types of base ... It is also used to form a small number of adjectives and adverbs ... When added to a root which can function as a noun, the suffix -an 1. occasionally produces a noun which hardly varies in meaning from the base noun (e.g. ruaŋ 'room' : ruaŋ-an 'room'); 2. more usually it produces a noun whose referent has some real or fancied resemblance to the referent of the base noun (e.g. achir 'end' : achir-an 'suffix', anak 'child' : anak-an 'interest (on an investment)', rambut 'hair' : rambut-an 'a fruit, the hairy cherry'; 3. when added to a noun root (usually reduplicated) the suffix -an forms a noun which refers to a collection of the referents of the simple noun, or of related referents (e.g. bintaŋ 'star' : bintaŋ-an 'constellation', pohon 'tree' : pohon-pohon-an 'trees, the vegetable kingdom'; 4. when added to a numerative (usually only satu, or those which can be preceded by satu in the form se-), the suffix -an forms a noun referring to a group consisting of that number (e.g. satu 'one' : satu-an 'a unit', -puluh 'ten' : puluh-an 'decade, a group of ten'; 5. when added to a verb (all other prefixes and suffixes being lost), the suffix -an forms a noun which refers to what is involved in the performance of the action referred to by the verb, whether as the product or the instrument (e.g. makan 'eat' : makan-an 'food', me-lukis 'to draws, paint' : lukis-an 'a drawing, painting', meŋ-ayun 'to rock, sway' : ayun-an 'cradle'. Such nouns in -an contrast with nouns in ke- -an, per- -an and peŋ- -an in that they refer to more concrete or definite things, while the three latter groups refer to more abstract processes. Nonetheless, there is sometimes a congruence in meaning between the noun in -an and the other nouns, especially those in per- -an and peŋ- -an... 6. Such nouns, derived from verbs by the addition of -an, refer to a collection of items, when the root is reduplicated (e.g. meŋ-gali 'to dig' : gali-an 'what is dug up' : gali-gali-an 'minerals, root crops', tembak 'to shoot' : tembak-an 'shot' : tembak-tembak-an 'shooting'; 7. Just as the suffix -an, added to a reduplicated noun root, produces a noun referring to a collection of items, the same suffix, added to a few adjective roots, usually reduplicated, produces a noun referring to a collection of items which can be characterized by that adjective (e.g. enak 'delicious' : enak-enak-an 'delicacies', manis 'sweet' : manis-an 'candy, sweets'; 8. Otherwise, adjectives and the occasional verb root, when reduplicated and followed by -an, produce adjectives, or adverbs of manner (e.g. teraŋ 'bright' : teraŋ-teraŋ-an 'frank', takut 'afraid' : takut-takut-an 'bashful', buta 'blind' : buta-buta-an 'at random, blindly') (Macdonald and Soenjono 1967:65ff).
Simalur
-an suffix used to form: 1. abstract nouns, 2. nouns which express a nominal perfect participle, 3. nouns of location; verbal suffix used to express various relationships between the action and the object; added to qualitative and intransitive constructions it has a causative function
Toba Batak
-an (in the second passive) the prefix tar- or ha- is placed before the nominal form. The prefix ha is always used when the active has the suffix -i: in the passive, this suffix is replaced by -an... The passive verbal substantives with the suffix -an do not always have a corresponding verb with the suffix -i. Their meaning can also be derived from another verbal form. For example, I have never come across a ma-maŋani-, which would mean 'to eat out of (something), as an active corresponding to paŋan-an: 1. 'that which can be eaten out of' (e.g. a large leaf); 2. 'from which one usually eats (a plate or a dish); 3. 'that which has been eaten into (by a disease)' (referring to marks left on the limbs by, for example, an eruptive skin disease... Such derived substantives represent a place where that which the verb represents usually takes place, or must take place... The suffix -an, just as the suffix -i, can, moreover, not only refer to a plural, but also to the repeated occurrence of the thing represented by the verb, or to its occurring on and off, for example, dalan-an can also mean where it is customary for someone to walk... The suffix -an seldom denotes a direct object, but an example is suru-an 'messenger who is sent', from ma-nuru. Suru-suru-an (repetition of the stem-word) is, however, far more often found...where such a word has not been taken from Minangkabau or Malay -an, representing -i, also means a plural, or repetition, or frequency ... (The second kind of nominal verb) has the suffix -an. a. When verbs of this kind are derived from substantives, the suffix indicates place and the subject is, therefore, represented by this verb as being a place where what the stem-word means can be seen (e.g. panas-an 'to sweat' = the place where the sweat (panas) is; roŋit-an 'to be bothered by flies' = something where flies (roŋit) are to be found), b. when this kind of nominal verb is derived from a verb, the subject is other than the stem-word, i.e. a person who is affected by what the stem-word represents (e.g. ŋolŋol-an 'be bored' : ŋolŋol 'boring', c. the suffix further strengthens what is represented by the stem-word and the derived form then means 'taking place continually', or 'occurring extensively' (e.g. borat-an 'be very laden' : borat 'heavy'; d. these verbs also mean 'an acquiring of', or 'a losing of', as a state (e.g. mate-an 'having deaths, of someone whose soldiers have been slain'; e. when they are derived from a qualificative verb, these verbs have the accent on the suffix and indicate that the quality exists to a greater degree (e.g. gabe-án 'to be richer' : gabé 'rich', datu-án 'to be a more skillful datu' ... Words ending in a vowel can insert an n before the suffix (e.g. dae-n-an, from dae) (van der Tuuk 1971:161, 196ff)
Lampung
-an a noun + -an, most often a reduplicated noun, specifies a large variety of the thing signified by the single-morpheme noun' (e.g. bataŋ 'tree' : bataŋ-bataŋ-an 'all kinds of trees'; verbal roots combine with -an to form nouns signifying the result of the action of the verb: cinciŋ 'carry (something light)' : cinciŋ-an 'that which is carried', aji 'to chant' : aji-an 'the chant', xatoŋ 'to come' : xatoŋ-an 'guests, the people coming'; partial reduplication + -an functions as a circumfix, combining with some intransitive verb roots meaning to cook, expressing a variety of ingredients used in the cooking process: gulay 'to make soup' : ga-gulay-an 'vegetables', pajaʔ 'to boil something' : pa-pajaʔ-an 'greens for boiling'; this combination also occurs with a few adjective and intransitive verb roots to give the abstraction of the root meaning: taway 'to teach' : ta-taway-an 'teaching, instruction', demon 'like' : da-demon-an 'a liking'
Mongondow
-an suffix with locative sense, where what the base-word says happens, is, or comes; afflicted with
Banggai
-an suffix forming adjectives. The suffix -an is actually local, and in the second instance temporal, and it thus gives the place and time at which or in which the meaning of the stem word is realized... Examples of adjectives with the suffix -an are: buluŋ-an 'loud, of sound' (from buluŋ 'throat', boo-an 'evil-smelling' (from boo 'stench'), buku-an 'strong' (from buku 'bone'), mon-doso-an 'be taboo' (from doso 'a taboo')...The collective function of -an which is found in some other languages is seen in osoa-an 'to marry' (from soa 'spouse') ... In other cases the meaning of the stem word is not available in Banggai, and hence the precise meaning of the suffix -an cannot be determined
Uma
-a the basic sense of the suffix -a is locative, although this basic sense is applied and extended in a variety of directions, so that there is often little or nothing of a local function left to perceive. As for the relationship of -a to the similarly local suffix -i, it can be said in general that -i is found in verbal, -a in nominal forms. There are, however, also many exceptions to this rule ... a. when added to a noun derived from a verb or adjective -a denotes the place or time in which the action takes place or the condition in question prevails; this suffix also occurs with forms that are prefixed with ka- and a possessive pronoun; b. -a is added to (underived) nouns in the sense 'having, supplied with, suffering from. These forms are adjectives, and have no prefix
Makassarese
-aŋ 1. suffix used to form passive nouns: that on which, in which, with which something is done (e.g. doŋkoʔ 'back (anat.)' : doŋkok-aŋ 'carriage', at-taʔgalaʔ 'to hold, keep ahold of' : taʔgall-aŋ 'handle', enteŋ 'stand, stand up' : enteŋ-aŋ 'place where one stands, position'); 2. suffix used to form deverbal adjectives or nouns with a passive sense, and carrying an implication of possibility or desirability; 3. suffix used to form adjectives with the meaning 'afflicted with, suffering from' (e.g. kaluara 'ant' : kaluar-àŋ 'covered with ants', bulalaʔ 'white spot on the cornea' : bulalakk-aŋ 'have a white spot on the cornea'; 4. substitute for the more commonly used -aŋŋaŋ, which expresses the comparative; here also belong indications of place and time in comparison with other place and time indicators; 5. suffix in connection with siapa and piraŋ- 'how much', with the meaning 'how much not'; 6. verbal suffix with the meaning 'do something for the benefit of, do something with something, do something because of something, do something at a certain point in time'
Chamorro
-an attributive suffix. It is difficult to find an appropriate name for this suffix. It is usually added to nouns. The affixed form then describes something that has attributes or features of the stem... The stem usually, but not always, takes the infix -in- (e.g. bosbos 'skin rash' : b-in-esbus-an 'condition of having a skin rash', chugoʔ 'sap, juice' : chiguʔ-an 'salty fish sauce', palaoʔan 'woman' : p-in-alaoʔan-an 'effeminate male' or 'having attributes of woman', pao 'odor' : pagu-an 'smelly')
OC Roviana
-ana suffix of location (e.g. huhuve 'bathe' : huhuve-ana 'bathing place, bath')
OC Penchal
-an attributive suffix
Seimat
-an attributive suffix
Label
-na attributive suffix
Arop
-ana attributive suffix
Gedaged
-an suffix added to substantives to form qualifiers, and sometimes to verbs to form nouns or qualifiers
Gapapaiwa
-na attributive suffix
WMP Ilokano
anabo small tree: Abroma augusta L. (Madulid 2001)
Ibanag
anabo small tree: Abroma augusta L. (Madulid 2001)
Isneg
anabó a malvaceous tree with red or yellow flowers, and entire leaves that affect the skin like nettles. The fibers of its bark are used for binding purposes
Isinay
anafu small tree: Abroma augusta L. (Madulid 2001)
Hanunóo
ʔanabú small tree (Abroma augusta L.); the leaves are used to rub on swollen parts of the body; the bast fibers of the inner bark are used extensively for making twisted bowstrings
Cebuano
anabú shrub or small tree which produces strong bark fiber of commercial importance: Abroma augusta
Palauan
lab bush in cocoa family (bark used for cord): Abroma augusta L.
WMP Ibaloy
anad caution, ability to avoid trouble; forethought to avoid something; discretion
Hanunóo
ʔánad accustomed to, skilled at, expert in
Aklanon
ánad to be used to, be accustomed to; familiar with
Waray-Waray
pag-pa-pa-anad the act of taming or domesticating animals
Agutaynen
mag-anad to get used to doing something; to train, accustom yourself to do something; to train a dog, small child, etc. to do something
Hiligaynon
anád usual; sophisticated; used to
Cebuano
ánad to take to, become fond of; to get accustomed, get in the habit of doing; tame
Maranao
anad to learn, familiarize (oneself with something)
Subanon
mog-anad to learn
Binukid
anad to accustom, familiarize someone or oneself to something by use or habit; to be accustomed, used to
Tausug
anad trained, accustomed to
WMP Ibaloy
ma-anad cautious
Waray-Waray
ma-anad tame; subdued; domesticated
WMP Itbayaten
anaro length, long
Rungus Dusun
anaru long (of objects)
Gayō
naru long
CMP Bimanese
naru long (of objects)
Tetun
naru-k long, lengthy; tall, lofty
Kola
nar long
Ujir
nar long
Nuaulu
nau long; deep
Proto-Ambon
*nadu long (of objects)
WMP Yami
anam a plant: Glochidion rubrum
Ilokano
anám a plant: Glochidion philippicum
WMP Yami
ananay shriek (of pain), moan
Itbayaten
ananay ouch!
Ibatan
ananay ouch! An exclamation of pain, esp. from a fall or cut
machi-ananay to cry out in pain
Ilokano
ananáy an interjection expressing pain
ag-ananáy to moan from pain
Ifugaw (Batad)
ananay an exclamation expressing pain, either superficial or severe
WMP Kankanaey
anáney to go, to do, etc. slowly; remissly; tardily; little by little
Aklanon
ananáy to go slowly, work carefully, do gradually
WMP Hanunóo
ʔanaŋanáŋ an exclamation expressing a threat or boast, somewhat in the sense of 'you'll see!'
Iban
anaŋ in prohibitions: don't; you must, don't fail to
WMP Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
enapiŋ cheek
Manobo (Ilianen)
napiŋ cheek
Singhi Land Dayak
paniŋ <M cheek
WMP Yami
anayop type of plant, beautyberry
Itbayaten
anayop an herb in pasture lands; shrub in woods with violet fruit: Viburnum; bush at base of hills, with pink flower: Callicarpa; this plant is laid at the entrance of a house in the rainy season for removing mud
Kankanaey
anayúp a verbaceous bush with pink flowers: Callicarpus caudata Maxim
WMP Itbayaten
andap idea of emitting light; sp. of fungus
om-andap to flare or flicker, emit light
Ilokano
andáp opalescence, luminescence, phosphorescence
Casiguran Dumagat
ándep species of plant (shines in the dark)
Pangasinan
andap to flicker
Tagalog
andáp twinkling (of light); spurt of low flame before extinction
Ngaju Dayak
andap small brown insect, similar in shape to a millipede; when touched it phosphoresces brightly
Tae'
andaʔ kind of phosphorescent millipede
Buginese
anreʔ kind of phosphorescent millipede
2. Otostigmus aculeatus (Haase 1887) a small tropical centipede with a dark grey body (with prototypical centipede body shape); known distribution includes "China; Indonesia (Java); Laos; Taiwan; Vietnam.
WMP Nias
adu idol
adu zatua ancestor figure
Minangkabau
andoŋ ancestor; grandfather
CMP Manggarai
anduŋ ancestors
WMP Hanunóo
ʔaniŋál echo
CMP Asilulu
ninal echo
WMP Isneg
annípa an exceedingly dangerous, very large, dark green, venomous snake with a big head
Remontado
anípa snake
Murut (Tagol)
nipo python
Narum
nipah snake
Kenyah (Long Wat)
nipah snake
Murik
ñipaʔ snake
Bintulu
ñipa snake
Tunjung
nipaʔ snake
Siang
ñipoʔ snake
Ma'anyan
anipe snake
CMP Ngadha
nipa kind of large snake
WMP Kadazan Dusun
ansau roam about, go astray
Iban
ansau look about in search of anything
Toba Batak
anso roam or rove about; idle around with nothing to do
Bare'e
anco force one's way through grass and bushes; wander in the wilderness
WMP Ilokano
antábay side; unison (of voices, strings, etc.); stand side by side; sing in unison
Pangasinan
antábay to guide, assist in learning a skill
Ayta Abellan
antabay to put a hand on someone’s shoulder
Tagalog
antabáy slowing down in order to wait
Bikol
antábay accompany, escort, stay with; stay tuned to a particular radio station or television channel
Aklanon
antábay wait for
antabáy-an wait for one another
Agutaynen
antabay-en to assist, support someone in walking somewhere by holding their arm; to lead someone by the hand or arm
WMP Aklanon
ántad gap, distance, space
Tontemboan
atar open and spacious terrain
WMP Bontok
ʔátap to suspect, to guess (as a person's guilt)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
antap to guess something, predict something
WMP Malay (Jakarta)
anteŋ gentle; quiet. Of children who play without disturbing their elders
Sundanese
anteŋ calm, peaceful, still, quiet, sweet (as a child, or a woman)
Old Javanese
anteŋ quiet, calm, working steadily
Madurese
anteŋ still, calm, quiet (not speaking much)
Makassarese
antaŋ be still, keep quiet; remain, reside
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
ateŋ hear the sound of wild game while hunting
Aklanon
ántiŋ keen, good, sharp (of hearing)
WMP Tausug
tag-andak stamp the feet
Karo Batak
anjak trot (of a horse), hop happily around (of children)
Toba Batak
anjak leap, dance
Tae'
andak stamp the feet
Formosan Saisiyat (Tungho)
ʔalak baby
Hoanya
ada ~ ala child
Tsou
me-ahʔo give birth
ŋ-hoʔə pregnant
Siraya
alak child
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
alak child, son, daughter
la-lak plural of alak
Paiwan (Western)
alʸak child; interest on deposit
WMP Yami
anak child
Itbayaten
anak one's child (daughter or son), as reference and a vocative term, offspring (of person or animal)
Ilokano
anák child, son, daughter; interest
Isneg
anáʔ child, son, daughter
Itawis
anák child
ának children
Kalinga (Guinaang)
anák child, offspring
Bontok
ʔanák relative at the first generation level below ego; child; nephew; niece; son; daughter
ʔanʔák offspring (plural)
Kankanaey
anák child, infant, offspring; son, daughter; boy, lad, girl, lass; young, whelp, pup, cub; shoot, sprout, young plant
Ifugaw
anák son, daughter; sibling; may sometimes be used in the sense of nephew or niece
Casiguran Dumagat
anák baby, child, son, daughter, offspring
ának children
Pangasinan
anák child, offspring
Kapampangan
anák child
aːnak children
Tagalog
anák offspring; son, daughter
anák sa lígaw bastard
Buhid
anák child
Hanunóo
ʔanák child, offspring, i.e., son or daughter; with all such kinship whenever one wishes to be specific as to sex; e.g. anák laláki 'son'; young, youthful, referring to persons
Bantuqanon
anak child
Aklanon
anák godchild; become a godparent, be a godparent
Hiligaynon
anák child
Palawan Batak
ʔanák child, young person; offspring, i.e., son or daughter
ʔanák ka babáy girl, young female (not daughter)
ʔanák ka laláki boy, young male (not son)
Cebuano
anák son, daughter; give birth; happen to have for a child
anák sa gawás illegitimate child
Maranao
anak offspring, brood
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
anak offspring
Manobo (Tigwa)
anak child, offspring
Mansaka
anák child; offspring
Tiruray
ʔonok offspring, egg, fruit; all consanguineal relatives in descending generations
ʔonok kayew fruit of a tree
ʔonok manuk chicken egg
Molbog
anak child
Bisaya (Lotud)
anak child
Kadazan Dusun
anak child
Minokok
tanak child
Bulungan
aneʔ child
Tabun
anak child
Kelabit
anak child, baby
anak n-alap adopted child
Berawan (Long Terawan)
anaʔ child
Berawan (Long Teru)
anak child
Kenyah
anak child
Kayan
anak child; the young of plants, animals, etc.
anak amuŋ adopted child
anak heduŋ stepchild
Bintulu
anak child; dependent part
Melanau (Mukah)
anak child, offspring
anak lay son
anak mahew daughter
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)
anak child
Bukat
anak child
Bekatan
anak child
Ngaju Dayak
anak child, offspring (human or animal)
anak rear interest on a loan (rear = 'money')
anak sarau illegitimate child
Malagasy
ánaka child, the young of anything; anyone treated with affection; affectionate and respectful mode of address
anak-anaka an allowance made for a loan or debt
ának-andríana petty princes among the various tribes
Banjarese
anak child
Iban
anak child, son, daughter, offspring, youngster, junior; small, a little, young
anak ambuʔ adopted child
anak ampaŋ bastard
anak duit interest on money
anak patu orphan (with neither parent)
anak tiriʔ stepchild
tunjok anak little finger
Maloh
anak child
anak ambu adopted child
anak biu orphan
anak lawan bastard
Singhi Land Dayak
anak child
bir-anak give birth
Tsat
naʔ²⁴ child
Jarai
anaʔ child
Rhade
anak daughter, son; nephew, niece: one's brother's child
Moken
anaːt offspring, child
Malay
anak child; young (of animal); native (of a country); one (of a party, set or series); important component part; smaller of two
anak aŋkat adopted child
anak anjiŋ lower part of calf-muscle
anak genta clapper of a bell
anak lidah uvula
anak piatu orphan
anak raja prince
anak tiri stepchild
anak uaŋ interest on money
Talaud
anaʔa child
Bahasa Indonesia
anak offspring; young person or animal; person who originates from or was born in (a given country, area, etc.); person belonging to a certain occupation (family, etc.), as anak kapal 'crewmember of a ship'; small part of some larger thing, as anak baju 'undershirt', anak bukit 'small hill (at foot of mountain)', anak air 'small tributary stream'
anak gampaŋ illegitimate child
Acehnese
anɨʔ child; young shoot; pit, stone, kernel, seed; constituent part of something
anɨʔ gɨnta clapper of a bell
anɨʔ gɨtuëŋ adopted child
anɨʔ tit clitoris
anɨʔ uy stepchild
Gayō
anak child
Simalur
anaʔ child, boy
Karo Batak
anak child; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); young of animals; sprout of a plant; descendant; inhabitant; figuratively of things that are small for their kind, in contrast with induŋ for things that are large for their kind
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
anak son; young of an animal
anak raja said to persons whose behavior is praiseworthy
Toba Batak
anak son, of man or animal; BS (m.s.), ZS (w.s.); son of all other same generation lineage mates; interest from money
i-anak-hon child in general without regard to sex
Nias
ono child, children; boys; calf; suckling pig; plant shoot
ono dorosi clapper of a bell
ono fõna stepchild
ono ganaʔa interest on a loan
ono horõ illegitimate child
Rejang
anoʔ child, offspring
anoʔ apaŋ illegitimate child, bastard
ʌnoʔ Dalam royal family and dynasty of Bencoolen before British occupation in 1685
Enggano
e-ada child
Lampung
anaʔ child, offspring
Old Javanese
anak child; smaller of two things (as a small mountain at the foot of a bigger one)
Javanese
anak offspring; nephew, niece; young plant sprout
anak kuwalon stepchild
Madurese
anaʔ child
Balinese
anak person, human individual; the word originally meant 'child' as in Malay ...; it is the widest word for 'human being', and needs to be qualified with other nouns or with adjectives to give it content; alone it may even be used with nouns indicating animals (bémasé ento anak 'those goldfish'), and with personal pronouns
Sasak
anak child (in contrast with adults); young of animals; sometimes child in general; smaller part of something larger, of small for its kind
anak akon adopted child who does not have the right to succession
anak iwoʔ orphan
anak jentik clitoris
anak lir uvula
anak ora ora illegitimate child
anak peras adopted child who has the right to succession
Proto-Sangiric
*anak child
Sangir
anaʔ child (in contrast with adults; otherwise one uses darioʔ
Proto-Minahasan
*anak offspring, child (of someone)
Tontemboan
anak child, in relation to adults, hence 'offspring'; used as a vocative term
Gorontalo
walaʔo child
walaʔa wuwatoʔo stepchild
Kaidipang
anako child
Balantak
anak child
Uma
anaʔ child
Bare'e
ana child, young one (always as a qualifier of another noun); sometimes also used of a part of some larger thing
ana ntau someone else's child
ana ilu orphan
ana ndarata stepchild
ana ŋkadoe illegitimate child
Ampana
ana child
Mori
ana child
Mori Atas
ana child
Mori Bawah
ana child
Padoe
ana child
Bungku
ana child
Wawonii
ana child
Mandar
anaʔ child, offspring'
Buginese
anaʔ child, offspring'
Makassarese
anaʔ child; son, daughter; young of animals, young plant; smaller part of a larger thing
anaʔ ao stepchild
anaʔ buni illegitimate child
anaʔ keraeŋ prince's children
Wolio
ana child, offspring', young (of animals), small and separate part of a whole
ana awo stepchild
ana maelu orphan
ana-na baluwu o peropa crown prince
Muna
ana child
Palauan
ŋálək child; baby; anyone younger than speaker; sweetheart; fiance(e)
ŋálək ər a orəoməlraəl bastard
CMP Bimanese
ana child; anything that is small
ana cempe adopted child
Donggo
ana child
Komodo
anaʔ child; young; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); son, daughter; give birth, breed
Manggarai
anak child; part of something; give birth, bear a child; young, small (of animals)
anak keraéŋ nobility (Makasarese loan)
anak tinu orphan
Rembong
anak child; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); sprout of plant; interest
Ngadha
ana child; person, human being; disciple, follower, member; inhabitant, resident; protege'; ward (person); title of distinction; young, small
Li'o
ana child
Sika
ʔanak small, of animals
Lamaholot
ana-n child
Solorese
anak child
Kédang
anaʔ child
Kodi
ana child
Kambera
ana child; young; small
ana tau wihi calf of the leg
Hawu
ana child
Dhao/Ndao
ana child
Rotinese
ana child, in comparison with adult; young of animals; small (used as both predicate and attributive adjective
na-ana have a child; accept or consider as a child; develop shoots, of a plant
na-ana-k call someone 'child'
ma-ana small, become smaller
Atoni
anax child
Vaikenu
ana small
Erai
ana-(n) little, small; child
Tugun
ana child
Roma
ana- child
East Damar
ana- child
Leti
ana child; small
an-wali family, consanguineal relative
Moa
ana child; small; bear children
Selaru
ana lineage; child of; offspring
Yamdena
anak child in the sense of offspring; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.)
Kei
yana-n child (in relation to adults); young; component part of something; small (for its kind)
yana-n sosalôk illegitimate child
Kola
ana- child
Dobel
ana child
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)
ana child
Elat
anako child
Masiwang
yana child
Teluti
ana-n child
Kamarian
ana child
Paulohi
ana child
Saparua
ana-hei child
Laha
ana child
Hitu
ana child
Nusa Laut
ana-i-l young
Larike
ana child
Morella
wana child
Buruese
ana child
ana-n child; small, baby
Soboyo
anaʔ child
baka-anaʔ bear children, give birth
anak katuaʔ orphan
anak makañ stepchild
anak una adopted child
Sekar
kuk-anak child
WMP Ilokano
a-anak-án womb, uterus, matrix
Casiguran Dumagat
a-anák toy doll
Banjarese
a-anak-an doll
Formosan Thao
az-azak child
WMP Ilokano
an-anák doll
Isneg
an-anáʔ child, son, daughter
Bontok
ʔan-ʔannak doll
ʔan-ʔanak child, one who has not yet entered puberty
CMP Watubela
an-anak child
WMP Kelabit
deŋ-anak brothers and sisters
Malay
daŋsanak relatives
WMP Kankanaey
in-anak-án having young ones, having a child. Applied to animals and to unmarried women who have a natural child
[Gaddang
in-an-anak bilateral personal kindred (formerly the effective units in revenge and wergild (Lebar 1975:101)]
Cebuano
hin-aŋk-an hen that has raised a brood
Mongondow
in-anak-an family, lineage
WMP Bontok
ʔiy-anák give birth, bear a child
ʔiy-anák nephew, niece
Casiguran Dumagat
i-yenak be born
Tagalog
i-anák give birth to (an offspring)
Tontemboan
i-anak piece that is placed in or on something else
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
k-anak k-anak small child (usually below seven years of age)
Sasak
k-anak child, young person
Mandar
ke-anaʔ have a child
CMP Rotinese
ka-anak have a child
Formosan Paiwan
ma-alʸak be disturbed by (too many) children
WMP Itawis
m-ának give birth; parents
Tagalog
ma-anák having many offspring
Ngaju Dayak
m-anak bring forth, give birth to, beget; bear interest
Karo Batak
me-anak be like one's own child in one's house, said of a non-family member
Makassarese
m-anaʔ get a child (of father and mother), bear, give birth
WMP Kapampangan
maka-anak capable of giving birth
Old Javanese
mak-ānak have as a child, consider as one's child
Tontemboan
maka-anak consider as one's child, get a child, bear a child
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
memper-anak-kan give birth to children
Bare'e
mampo-ana bring forth, bear, give birth
Mandar
mappe-ana-ŋ give birth
WMP Itbayaten
maŋ-anak children
Ilokano
maŋ-anák sponsor, godparent
Itawis
maŋ-anák sponsor in baptism
Bontok
maŋ-anák adopt a child; sponsor a child for baptism, have a godchild
Ifugaw
maŋ-anák godfather, godmother
Pangasinan
man-anák bear a child
Kapampangan
maŋ-anák give birth
Iban
(ma)ŋ-anak call someone a child
Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-anak semaŋ work as a servant, do menial labor
meŋ-anak suŋai stream profusely (blood, etc.)
Nias
maŋ-ono give birth
Lampung
ŋ-anaʔ have children
Javanese
ŋ-anak call someone or regard someone as one's own child
Sasak
ŋ-anak give birth, bear a child
Mongondow
moŋ-anak young
Makassarese
aŋgi-anaʔ add a third strand in making rope
WMP Karo Batak
ŋ-anak-i yield interest; play the small gong (peŋ-anak)
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
meŋ-anak-i yield interest (money)
Toba Batak
maŋ-anah-i lend money with the purpose of earning interest
Old Javanese
maŋ-anak-i have children
WMP Itbayaten
mi-anak give birth
Ilokano
ag-anák give birth, be delivered, bring forth young
Isneg
max-an-anáʔ give birth
Casiguran Dumagat
meg-enak give birth
Tagalog
mag-anák act as sponsor or godparent in baptism, confirmation or wedding; give birth
Hiligaynon
mag-anák bear a child, give birth; be a godparent to a child during baptism or confirmation
Kadazan Dusun
mag-anak bear children, bring forth children, generate, give birth
Ngaju Dayak
ba-anak have children
Banjarese
bar-anak give birth
bar-anak-an have a child
Iban
ber-anak give birth; bear interest (money)
Malay
ber-anak be possessed of children; give birth
Acehnese
mɨʔ-anɨʔ give birth
Simalur
mal-anaʔ have children, bear children, give birth
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
mer-anak-anak-en having lots of children
Toba Batak
mar-anak have a son or sons
Nias
moʔ-ono have a child, get a child, give birth
Old Javanese
m-ānak to have (bring forth) a child
Javanese
m-anak to reproduce (of animals, crudely of people)
Balinese
m-anak give birth; be born (not usually of human beings)
m-anak-an produce young, give birth (usually of animals)
balyan m-anak-an midwife
m-anak-aŋ yield interest (money)
Sasak
ber-anak give birth, bear a child
Sangir
mah-anaʔ get a child, receive a child
meh-anaʔ give birth, bear a child
Tontemboan
m(a)-anak bear, give birth
Uma
moʔ-anaʔ have a child
Bare'e
mo-ana bear, give birth, have children (also said of a man)
CMP Rotinese
ma-anak have a child
Formosan Paiwan
mare-alʸak parent and child
mare-ka-alʸak children of the same parents
WMP Malagasy
mi-ànaka used in speaking of parent (father or mother) and child
Buginese
mar-anaʔ with a child (as a parent sleeping with a child)
mar-ana-ŋ one family
WMP Cebuano
pa-aŋk-an make someone pregnant
p-in-a-aŋk-an illegitimate child; one who gave birth out of wedlock
Ngaju Dayak
p-anak-an children, descendants
Malay
p-enak-an nephew
WMP Pangasinan
pan-anák time or month of delivery
Cebuano
paŋ-anák sponsor in a baptism
Ngaju Dayak
peŋ-anak a smaller thing on or in a larger one
Malay
peŋ-anak the smaller of a pair, likened to mother and daughter
Karo Batak
peŋ-anak small gong
Old Javanese
paŋ-anak bringing forth
Makassarese
paŋŋ-anaʔ the third strand added in making rope
Palauan
oŋ-álək nuclear family
WMP Tagalog
pag-anák act or moment of parturition
Tiruray
feg-onok lay an egg; bear fruit; deliver a baby
Iban
per-anak offspring, issue
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
per-anak the father of the bridegroom or his substitute
Toba Batak
par-anak the one who arranges the marriage for a young man (Vergouwen 1964:156)
Balinese
p-anak birth; a thing born, a child; used alone it refers to a young animal; interest on money
Sangir
pah-anaʔ bear a child! (passive imper.)
peh-anaʔ bear a child! (imper.)
Bare'e
masoso po-ana-ña she had her children in rapid succession
WMP Mansaka
pag-anak-an uterus, womb
Malay
per-anak-an born, native
Bahasa Indonesia
per-anak-an uterus, womb; mixed descendants of native population and immigrants
Old Javanese
p-ānak-an woman by whom one has a child, wife
Mandar
pe-ana-ŋ uterus, womb; mixed descendants of native population and immigrants
[Makassarese
pamm-anakk-aŋ uterus, womb]
WMP Kankanaey
s-ának have many children, young shoots, sprouts; have numerous offspring
Malay
s-anak kindred = sa-anak (children of one and the same descent). Used of blood relationship, esp. (Minangkabau) on the distaff side
Bare'e
kami sa-ana we with our children
tau sa-ana both parents, or either on, with their children
WMP Ilokano
saŋa-anak-án litter
Tontemboan
saŋa-anak a 'nest of children', a brood. Also used of people, as in saŋa anak sera 'they were born at the same time/they are twins'
WMP Bontok
ʔ<um>anák give birth, bear a child
Ifugaw
um-anák give birth to a child
Tagalog
um-anák give birth
Cebuano
um-a-ának about to give birth
Old Javanese
um-anak aken give birth to
WMP Yami
k-anak-án child
Itbayaten
ka-anak-an young man or woman, bachelor or maiden
Ilokano
ka-anak-án nephew, niece
Itawis
k-ának-an nephew, niece
Bontok
ka-ʔanak-an nephew, niece
Tagalog
ka-ának-an last embryonic stage during which birth is expected; month of child delivery
Makassarese
ka-anakk-aŋ birth; be born at a certain time
allo ka-anakk-aŋ birthday
WMP Kalamian Tagbanwa
kam-anak-on nephew, niece (Lebar (1975)
Central Tagbanwa
kamanakɨn nephew
Kadazan Dusun
kam-anak-on stepchild, nephew
Murut (Timugon)
akon sibling's child
Bisaya
anak nak-on sibling's child
Sa'ban
anak m-enak-en sibling's child
Kiput
anak m-əna-an sibling's child
Bintulu
anak m-ənak-ən sibling's child
Melanau (Mukah)
nak-en anak sibling's child
Melanau (Matu)
nak-en laymero nephew/niece
Kapuas
ak-en sibling's child
Ma'anyan
ak-en sibling's child
Banjarese
kam-anak-an nephew, niece
Iban
ak-an distant cousin; polite form of address to a younger person
WMP Cebuano
aŋk-an having given birth
aŋk-an-un for people to be prolific in childbirth
Mansaka
anak-an give birth
Banjarese
anak-an fingerlings of fish
Bahasa Indonesia
anak-an interest on money
Javanese
anak-an the young of an animal; doll; small, of natural phenomena; copy, duplicate; drawer, section, compartment; interest on borrowed money
Sasak
anak-aŋ give birth; lend money to earn interest
WMP Itbayaten
anak-en nephew, niece; foster child, one considered as a child, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, spouse of nephew or niece
Bontok
ʔanak-ən adopt a child; sponsor a child for baptism; have a godchild
Ifugaw
anak-ón adopt a child as son or daughter
Tagalog
anak-ín adopt (x) as one's own child; act as sponsor, godparent to (x)
Hiligaynon
anák-un bear a child, give birth; be a godparent to a child during a baptism or confirmation
Cebuano
anák-un for people or animals to be prolific in childbirth
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
enak-en niece, nephew; a person's relative of his child's generation
Mansaka
anak-un nephew, niece
Kadazan Dusun
anak-on be born, of children
Karo Batak
anak-en of a wasp's nest, already containing eggs; of an egg, have the beginnings of an embryo
Old Javanese
wwaŋ anak-en suffer from excessive fondness for one's relations
WMP Bontok
ʔan-ʔannak doll
Cebuano
anak ának adopted child; in a child's game, the pretend child
Bahasa Indonesia
anak anak many children; a small child
Simalur
anaʔ anaʔ small child
Karo Batak
anak anak brook, tributary stream; children, in contrast with adults
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
anak anak child, without regard to sex
Toba Batak
anah anak small club or cudgel; shuttle of a loom
Old Javanese
anak anak give birth to a child (calve, etc.); consider as one's child
m-ānak anak bring forth a child
Javanese
anak anak to have children
Balinese
anak anak people, persons (as individuals, as opposed to woŋ which = a person or persons as members of a category)
Buginese
anaʔ anaʔ many children; a small child
Makassarese
anaʔ anaʔ child (immature person), young man, young woman; servant, follower; doll of native manufacture; part of a casting net
WMP Kapampangan
anak anak-an adopted child
Tagalog
anák anak-an foster child
Bahasa Indonesia
anak anak-an doll
anak anak-an mentimun child adopted for one's wife (lit. 'cucumber doll')
Old Javanese
anak anak-an doll or anything (which is treated and fondled) like a baby
anak anak-(an) pupil of the eye
WMP Kayan
anak apin twin
[Iban
anak sapit twin]
[Maloh
anak kampit twin]
[Malay
anak kembar twin]
[Sasak
anak (r)indu twin]
CMP [Manggarai
anak dapér twin]
[Ngadha
ana doa twin; siblings of the same sex]
[Kambera
ana ndua twin]
[Erai
ana kapu(n) rua twins]
WMP Malagasy
ana bavy Z (m.s.)
[Karo Batak
anak beru ZS (m.s.), FZS (m.s.); wife-takers]
[Toba Batak
anak boru ZS (m.s.), FZS (m.s.); wife-takers]
CMP Manggarai
anak wina wife-takers
Rembong
anak wina wife-takers
Kambera
ana wini Z (m.s.)
Hawu
na weni Z (m.s.)
[Atoni
an feto wife-takers]
[Erai
ana-hata ZC (m.s.)]
[Huaulu
haha-pina wife-takers]
WMP Iban
anak buah a relation
Malay
anak buah followers; tribesmen; clansmen
Bahasa Indonesia
anak buah people who belong in one's family, (nation, etc.)
Toba Batak
anak bua subjects, serfs
Javanese
anak buah crew; group under the command of an officer, or employees under a boss
Makassarese
anaʔ bua-na paʔrasaŋaŋa inhabitant of an area
CMP Ngadha
ana bua children of the same father, but different mother
Kamarian
ana hua illegitimate child
WMP Malay
anak dara maiden, virgin
Acehnese
anɨʔ dara marriageable girl
Old Javanese
anak-ḍara maid, virgin
Tae'
anak dara maiden, young woman; Z (b.s.)
[Makassarese
anaʔ rara young girl from 10-12 years of age]
WMP Malagasy
ana dahy B (w.s.)
Tae'
anak muane B (w.s.)
CMP Manggarai
anak rona wife-givers
Rembong
anak rana wife-givers
Kambera
ana mini B (w.s.)
Hawu
na mone B (w.s.)
[Atoni
an mone wife-givers]
Erai
ana-mane BC (w.s.)
[Huaulu
haha-mana wife-givers]
WMP [Kelabit
anak siaʔ neonate (lit. 'red child')]
Bahasa Indonesia
anak mérah neonate (lit. 'red child')
[Dairi-Pakpak Batak
anak embara baby, suckling, newborn (lit. 'red child')]
[Bare'e
ana ndoro neonate (lit. 'red child')]
CMP [Manggarai
anak wara baby (lit. 'red child')]
[Rembong
anak wara baby (lit. 'red child')]
[Kambera
ana rara suckling, infant (lit. 'red child')]
Erai
ana mera mera-s little children, babies (lit. 'red children')
WMP [Iban
anak tuai eldest child, heir]
[Rhade
anak khua firstborn, oldest child]
[Malay
anak suloŋ firstborn child]
Acehnese
anɨʔ ulèë bara firstborn child
[Nias
ono hene firstborn (of animals)]
[Rejang
anoʔ tuwai suʔaŋ oldest child in family]
Bare'e
ana uyu-e firstborn child
CMP Rembong
anak ulu firstborn child
[Kambera
ana tuhaŋu eldest child]
Rotinese
ana ulu-k firstborn child
[Erai
ana(n) ajulu eldest child]
[Kei
yanan yān eldest child]
[Soboyo
anaʔ mantuañ eldest child]
WMP Simalur
anaʔ banwo subject (of state), serf; native of a place
Nias
ono mbanua common man, villager
Old Javanese
anak wanwa person belonging to the wanwa-community
CMP Ngadha
ana nua villager
[Erai
ana-hira the children, often used in the meaning of: villagers, the village population]
WMP Simalur
anaʔ batu-fatu small stones, gravel
Sasak
anak batu gravel
CMP Kei
wāt yana-n small stone
WMP Kayan
anak apuy sparks of fire
Simalur
anaʔ axoe sparks of fire
WMP Bintulu
anak kəjan rung of a ladder
[Malay
anak taŋga rung of a ladder]
Acehnese
anɨʔ reunjeun rung of a ladder
Simalur
anaʔ aeran rung of a ladder
[Toba Batak
anak ni taŋga rung of a ladder]
Wolio
ana-na oda step of a staircase of ladder
WMP [Acehnese
anɨʔ pisaŋ young banana shoots]
[Simalur
anaʔ kaol banana shoot]
Toba Batak
anak ni hau shoot, sprout
[anak ni gaol banana shoot]
[Sangir
anaʔ u nanasi pineapple sprout]
[Makassarese
anaʔ ase small rice haulm]
CMP [Bimanese
ana kalo banana sprout, young banana tree]
[Komodo
ana wana young palmyra palm]
Rotinese
ai anak young tree
WMP Sasak
anak lisuŋ rice pestle
Wolio
anana nosu pestle
CMP Kei
luhun yana-n rice pestle
WMP [Malay
anak jari finger]
[Simalur
anaʔ kaokaə little finger/toe]
[Toba Batak
anak ni taŋan little finger]
[Angkola-Mandailing Batak
anak ni taŋan finger]
Sasak
anak ima little finger
[Palauan
ŋálək pinkie; small finger]
CMP Rotinese
lima kuʔu anak little finger, pinkie
WMP Bare'e
ana manu chick
CMP Rotinese
manu-ana chick
WMP [Malagasy
anaka-ndri-maso pupil of the eye]
Malay
anak mata pupil of the eye
Acehnese
anɨʔ mata pupil of the eye
Toba Batak
anak ni mata pupil of the eye
Nias
ono hõrõ pupil of the eye
Rejang
anoʔ matey pupil of the eye
Sangir
anaʔ u mata pupil of the eye
Bare'e
ana mata pupil of the eye
CMP Manggarai
anak mata pupil of the eye
WMP Ngaju Dayak
anak panah arrow
Malay
anak panah arrow
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
anak céur arrow
Nias
ono fana arrow; bullet
Wolio
ana-na pana arrow
CMP Kambera
na ana-na pana arrow
WMP [Cebuano
anák sa búhat laborer]
[Ngaju Dayak
anak oloh slave (affectionate substitute for jipen)]
[Iban
anak kuli laborer]
[Malay
anak mas born slave]
[Dairi-Pakpak Batak
anak hamba said to a person whose conduct is rude]
[Toba Batak
anak somaŋ servant, slave]
[Old Javanese
anak wesi servant, attendant, constant companion]
Makassarese
anaʔ ata child of one's own slaves
CMP Rotinese
ana-ataata-ana slave child
[Kei
yanan piār house slave, house servant]
WMP [Malay
anak damak blowpipe dart]
[Acehnese
anɨʔ bɨdé bullet]
[Simalur
anaʔ mariam cannot shot]
[Toba Batak
anak (ni) bodil bullet]
[Makassarese
anaʔ baʔdiliʔ bullet]
[Wolio
ana-na kasopu blowpipe dart]
CMP [Bimanese
ana bedi bullet]
Manggarai
anak sumpit blowpipe dart
WMP [Iban
anak oraŋ another person's child]
[Bahasa Indonesia
anak oraŋ non-relative]
Bare'e
ana n-tau someone else's child
CMP Kambera
ana tau someone else's child
WMP Itbayaten
ma-tay-anak baby-sitter
Casiguran Dumagat
tag-anak-an uterus (archaic)
Sangir
tah-anaʔ to rear, care for a child
Tontemboan
tar-anak relatives, consanguineal kin
Formosan Pazeh
alay termite, white ant
WMP Itbayaten
anay termite, white ant
Ilokano
ánay white ant, termite
Isneg
an-ánay small ant with black head and white body. Not a termite; if eaten it causes the abdomen to burst
Itawis
ánay termite
Bontok
ʔánəy termite
Ifugaw
áne termite
Gaddang
ánay termite
Casiguran Dumagat
anɛ termite
Kapampangan
áne termite
Tagalog
ánay white ants, termites
Bikol
ánoy termite
Hanunóo
ʔánay termite, white ant, whether found in wood or in large anthills
Aklanon
ánay termite (general term)
Hiligaynon
ánay termite
Cebuano
ánay termite; be infested with termites
Maranao
anay ant; attack by white ants
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
aney termite
Mansaka
anay termite
Tiruray
ʔaney mound-building termites
Kadazan Dusun
t-anay white ant
Kelabit
ane termite, white ant
Berawan (Long Terawan)
anay termite, white ant
Kenyah
anay white ant
ŋ-anay numerous as white ants
Kayan
aney termites, white ants
Bintulu
anay termite, white ant
Banjarese
anay white ant, termite
Maloh
ane termite
Malay
anay-anay white ants; generic for Termitidae
di-makan anay-anay destroyed by white ants
Simalur
anae anae termite
Karo Batak
ane ane white ant
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
ane ane white ant
Rejang
aney aney ants, termites
Sundanese
anay small kind of termite which seldom emerges from ground
Mongondow
anoy white ant
Gorontalo
wale termite larva
Bare'e
ane termite, white ant
ke-ane damaged by termites
Tae'
ane termite, white ant
Mori Bawah
ane termite
Mandar
ane termite, white ant
me-ʔane bustling, swarming (as with termites)
Buginese
ane termite, white ant
Wolio
ane larva of termite, white ant
ane kumba beetle larva
Palauan
ŋal termite; termite-ridden
CMP Bimanese
ane termite, white ant
Proto-Ambon
*ana(y) termite
Buruese
ana termite
OC Pak
an termite, white ant
Loniu
an termite, white ant
Leipon
an termite, white ant
Mussau
ane termite, white ant
Bugotu
ane white ant
Nggela
ane white ant
ane-ga eaten with white ants, rotten
ane-lovo flying ants
Kwaio
nale <M white ant (termite)
nale-ʔa termite riddled, insect riddled
Lau
sane shite ant
sane-a eaten by white ant
'Āre'āre
nare <M white ants
Sa'a
sane white ant, the food of ghosts on Malapa?
sane-ʔa eaten by white ants
Arosi
ane the white ant which bores and destroys
ane-hau a variety which lives in the ground; the name for its nest; these ants were thought to be incarnations of the dead
Arosi (Southern)
sane white ant; to spread over, as ants
Fijian
yane sp. of moth
Tongan
ane moth (or, more strictly, its larva) that eats holes in clothes, etc.; silverfish
Samoan
ane sp. of white ant (a wood pest)
āne-a be damaged by white ants
anea-nea old, ancient, as a fine mat (lit. so old as to be eaten by ants)
Tuvaluan
ane insect species, termite
ane-a infested with ane (of a tree)
Rennellese
ane nest of white grubs, the grubs (sometimes fed to chickens); termite nest, the termites
ane-a to be many ane; moth-eaten
Rarotongan
ane white ant
Hawaiian
ane a dermestid beetle that destroys feathers in feather-work; mites, as in chickens; ringworm; insect-eaten, gnawed
lehu ane fine ashes
WMP Kapampangan
ma-ʔane full of termites
Bikol
ma-ánoy be eaten by termites
WMP Bikol
anóy-on be eaten by termites
Tiruray
ʔaney-en infested by termites
Karo Batak
ane-anē-n damaged by white ants
WMP Tiruray
ʔonom to weave
Berawan (Long Terawan)
añiːm to weave
Kenyah
añam woven
Kayan
añam weaving; to weave (e.g. baskets); plaits of anything; to plait
Kayan (Uma Juman)
añam plait, weave (as mats)
Bintulu
añam weaving
Melanau (Mukah)
añam plait, plaiting
Iban
añam weave (of baskets and mats), braid, plait
Malay
añam plaiting; braiding; making mats and baskets or wattled fences; interweaving
Sundanese
añam plaiting (as of rattan or bamboo)
añam-an what is plaited, plaitwork
Madurese
añam plaiting; braiding
añam-an what is plaited or braided
Proto-Sangiric
*anam to weave (mats, baskets)
Sangir
anaŋ an ornament plaited of leaves
Gorontalo
walamo weaving, woven
moh-alamo to weave
Tialo
añam weaving of a mat
Tae'
anan plait, weave
Makassarese
anaŋ plaiting, weaving
paŋŋ-anaŋ weave bamboo or rattan around something
Wolio
ana plait
CMP Kédang
anaŋ weave, braid
Selaru
an plaiting of mats, baskets, etc.
Fordata
anan plaiting of baskets, fish weirs, etc.
Kei
anan plaiting of baskets and mats
Paulohi
ana to plait, weave
SHWNG Buli
yanam to plait, weave (as mats)
Numfor
yanəm to plait, weave
OC Gilbertese
ana term used in mat weaving to designate a certain width
Fijian
yana-yana loosely plaited or woven, as of mats
WMP Kenyah
m-añam to weave
Kayan
m-añam to weave
Bintulu
m-añam to weave
Melanau (Mukah)
m-añam to plait
Jarai
m-eñam plait, braid, weave
Rhade
m-ñam to weave
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-añam plait (laths, pandanus leaves, etc.), as in making a mat or basket
meŋ-añam rambut plait or braid hair
Sundanese
ŋ-añam plait a mat
Madurese
ŋ-añam to plait or braid
Sangir
maŋ-anaŋ plait (baskets, etc., but not hair)
Tialo
moŋ-añamE weave a mat
Tae'
maŋ-anan to plait, weave
Makassarese
aŋ-anaŋ to plait, weave
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
añam-an what has been plaited or woven; things that have been plaited
añam-an rambut a plait or braid of hair
Gorontalo
walam-olo woven
WMP Bilaan (Sarangani)
anɨm weave a mat
Samal
anom weave a mat
Malay
añam plaiting, braiding, making mats and baskets or wattled fences; interweaving
Buginese
aneŋ braid, plait, twine, weave (baskets, mats, but not cloth)
CMP Rotinese
ane braid, plait, twine, weave (baskets, mats, but not cloth)
WMP Itneg (Binongan)
anuliŋ a tree: Pisonia umbellifera (Madulid 1999)
Tagalog
anuliŋ tree with yellowish leaves, used as spinach
Bikol
anuliŋ tree with yellowish leaves, used as spinach
Hanunóo
ʔanulíŋ sp. of tree: Pisonia umbellifera Seem.
CMP Manggarai
nuliŋ a plant with fruit that grows in clusters and is used for glue: Pisonia umbellifera
OC Bugotu
nuli a fruit tree: Pisonia grandis
Nggela
nuli tree with yellowish leaves, used as spinach
WMP Ilokano
áŋal moan, groan softly
Bontok
ʔáŋal to answer back angrily, to challenge
Ibaloy
aŋal dog fight; also sometimes fight between pigs
Tagalog
áŋal prolonged cry, expressing pain, complaint, or opposition
Cebuano
áŋal to find something to complain about
WMP Itbayaten
aŋaŋ earthen jar for containing water, wine, liquid, sugar, salt, rice, etc.; this is the second largest among the earthenwares
Ibatan
aŋaŋ a burial urn used by the first inhabitants of the island prior to the 1680s; a large earthen jar for water, wine, etc.
Isneg
aŋáŋ a general name for jar
Ifugaw
aŋáŋ a great earthen cooking pot in which the Ifugaw boil the food for pigs (e.g. sweet potato, peels)
WMP Sundanese
aŋah open the mouth; be open, of the mouth
CMP Bimanese
aŋa open wide (mouth)
WMP Kankanaey (Northern)
aŋas face (Reid 1971)
Ifugaw
áŋah face, facial aspect
Ifugaw (Batad)
āŋah the face of a living being
Subanon
gaŋas face
Tiruray
ʔaŋas the face of a person
WMP Bikol
áŋat to challenge
Melanau (Mukah)
aŋat face bravely
m-aŋat bold or fearless in facing someone who is angry with you
Formosan Tsou
ŋoz-i leave, depart
WMP Yami
(a)ŋay go
aŋ-aŋay-an place where one goes frequently
Ibatan
aŋay someone comes, goes to do something
maŋ-aŋay to go
aŋay-an someone comes, goes someplace
Ilokano
áŋay visitor
um-áŋay to be near (in time)
aŋáy-en to invite, call a meeting
Casiguran Dumagat
aŋë to come, to go, to go get something
Formosan Tsou
moŋoi to leave, go away, depart
WMP Itbayaten
maŋay to go, leave, depart; to come
WMP Pangasinan
on-aŋáy to fit well
Bikol
áŋay fitting, proper (as clothes that match)
Hanunóo
ʔáŋay fitting, fitted, suited, becoming
Aklanon
aŋáy to complement, be a good match for, be fitting, harmonize; to adjust; to tune a musical instrument
Hiligaynon
áŋay appropriate, becoming
mag-áŋay to be well matched, to be equal
Cebuano
áŋay fitting, proper, right time or situation; evenly cut, equally spaced; be appropriate
WMP Ilokano
aŋség stench of putrid urine
Bontok
ʔaŋsə́g underarm perspiration; the smell of underarm perspiration
Aklanon
áŋsod underarm odor
Cebuano
aŋsúd having body odor
Maranao
ansed offensive body odor
Toba Batak
ansok sweat in the armpits
WMP Maranao
anseŋ malodorous
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
anceŋ stench of sweaty armpits
WMP Arta
aŋud young, immature (of plant)
Maranao
aŋod young; youth
Binukid
aŋhud term of address for one's younger sibling
Kelabit
aŋud young, tender, soft (of leaves, children)
Singhi Land Dayak
aŋod young
WMP Ilokano
aŋlém stench of burning cloth
OC Nggela
aŋo emit a sour smell, as of urine
WMP Ibatan
m-antad something is easily seen, visible; someone or something is famous
mayp-antad someone or something becomes visible, especially that comes out or sticks out
Cebuano
aŋtad be in line of sight (as in watching a t.v. through a window); be where one can see it
pa-ʔaŋtad put something in the line of sight
WMP Tagalog
aŋí aromatic odor of overcooked or oversteamed rice
Iban
aŋi sweet smelling, scented
OC Seimat
aŋi-an sharp
Tolai
m-aŋi sharp, of pointed or edged tools; to sharpen, point
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
um-aŋkás to mount a horse or carabao
məg-aŋkás to ride double on a horse or carabao
Tagalog
aŋkás riding with someone in the same vehicle or on horseback or bicycle; getting or having a lift
mag-aŋkás to ride together
Aklanon
áŋkas to ride together, hop on (a bicycle)
Agutaynen
mag-aŋkat for a person to ride a bike or drive a motorcycle together with another person riding on the back; to let another person ride behind you
Binukid
aŋkas to ride together with someone; to have someone ride with one; for more than one person to ride on something
Mansaka
aŋkas to ride with (as on a horse)
Tausug
mag-aŋkas to give someone a ride behind one, as on a horse, scooter, or bicycle
WMP Kankanaey
aŋkát the place from where it is fetched, taken, brought (money, camotes, wood, etc.)
Pangasinan
aŋkát buy wholesale
Tagalog
aŋkát consignment of merchandise
Aklanon
áŋkat get on credit
Cebuano
aŋkát take something for resale on credit
Maranao
akat transport, move
Malagasy
ákatra ascent, upward progress
Malay
aŋkat lifting up; (fig.) adoption
Acehnese
aŋkat lift, raise, pick or take up
Karo Batak
r-aŋkat go out on an expedition or raid
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
peŋ-aŋkat way of leaping
Mentawai
akát lift, raise (Morris 1900)
masi-akkat lift (Pagai, Sipora, southern Siberut)
Rejang
akeut adopted; senior, older
Sundanese
aŋkat lift it up! (imperative)
m-aŋkat depart on a trip
Old Javanese
aŋkat departure, getting up
m-aŋkat get up, rise, set out, depart
Javanese
ŋ-aŋkat-(i) lift, raise
Balinese
aŋkat set off, march to war, depart
Sasak
aŋkat lift up, raise; appoint to a position (by those higher up)
Mongondow
aŋkat expression of congratulations
Bare'e
me-aŋka stand up, rise up
Tae'
aŋkaʔ pick up, lift up, raise up; to praise, exalt; promote to (an office or position)
Makassarese
aŋkaʔ lifting, raising
Wolio
aŋka lift up; fly up (many birds), run away (many people)
aŋkat-aka hold in high esteem, have a high regard for
WMP Rejang
k-akeut lift, adopt, take up (imperative)
Javanese
k-aŋkat movable, portable
WMP Itawis
maŋ-akkát carry
Karo Batak
ŋ-aŋkat lift up, raise
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
meŋ-aŋkat leap; lift, raise
Rejang
meŋ-akeut adopt
Sundanese
ŋ-aŋkat open festivities; lift, raise; appoint
Balinese
ŋ-aŋkat set off, march to war, depart
Bare'e
maŋ-aŋkat-aka lift, raise up high
Makassarese
aŋŋ-aŋkaʔ lift up, lift and carry away
WMP Malay
meŋ-aŋkat-aŋkat to praise up; to flatter
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
meŋ-aŋkat-ŋ-aŋkat leap, spring, rise on one's toes
Old Javanese
aŋ-aŋkat-aŋkat lift, elevate; send off, make depart; take up one's belongings (weapons, baggage) in order to depart
WMP Isneg
max-akkāt lift a bow net that has been set
Malagasy
mi-àkatra ascend, go up, mount up
Malay
ber-aŋkat travel with a retinue, to journey (of a prince)
Sasak
mer-aŋkat to marry
Bare'e
mo-aŋka lift up, as something that has been lying flat but which the heat of the sun has caused to curl
WMP Malay
p-aŋkat tier; stage; floor; grade; rank; school-standard
Sundanese
p-aŋkat rank, grade
Makassarese
pa-aŋkaʔ bearer, carrier
WMP Karo Batak
peŋ-aŋkat help
Sundanese
paŋ-aŋkat introduction, beginning (as of a feast)
Javanese
paŋ-aŋkat act or way of raising
Makassarese
paŋaŋ-aŋkaʔ the lifting, raising
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
ter-aŋkat raised, lifted
Makassarese
tar-aŋkaʔ be lifted or raised (cp. Bahasa Indonesia ter-aŋkat)
WMP Isneg
akkat-án to lift, as a load that has to be carried; remove a pot from the fire, etc.
akkat-ān help lift up a load
aŋkat-ān the place where loads are lifted up, where bow nets have been set
Malay
aŋkat-an expedition; generation (same age group)
Javanese
aŋkat-an act or way of lifting; a load
Tae'
aŋkar-an deliverance from worry and disaster
Makassarese
aŋkakk-aŋ lift or raise something for someone
WMP Malay
aŋkat-aŋkat gait, bearing
Wolio
aŋka-aŋka lift and keep up, hold up, keep aloft
WMP Aklanon
áŋkob seal, filling, joiner, gap-filler
Cebuano
aŋkúb covering over the opening of a small boat, the analogue of a deck on large boats; fill something in to cover up a deficiency
Balinese
aŋkeb cover(ing), lid, bed-spread, table-cloth
WMP Ilokano
akkúb cover, wrapper, shell (of crab)
akób join together two things of the same kind facing each other (two plates, two shells, two hands, etc.)
Bontok
ʔakúb large covered basket, generally used as a lunch basket for carrying rice to the fields
Javanese
aŋkub calyx, flower sheath (green cover that splits at blossoming)
Mongondow
aŋkub to cover
OC Arosi
saku close tightly on
WMP Ilokano
akúp-en gather, collect. With both hands, two brooms, etc., as dirt
Isneg
ákup to catch
akkúp-an catch birds in their nest, at night
Itawis
m-ákkup gather up in both hands cupped together
Arta
akkup-en to scoop with both hands, collect
Bontok
ʔákup gather up with cupped hands, as spilt beans
Kankanaey
ákup one (great) handful; one (small) armful. A quantity that can be taken up with both hands
Ifugaw
ákup act of scooping out things (e.g. pounded rice, beans) with one's two hands joined
Ifugaw (Batad)
ākup scoop out a liquid or solid with the two hands cupped together
Casiguran Dumagat
akop pick up (as to pick up rice, salt, sand by cupping it in your hands, or to pick up a pile of clothing or trash in your arms
Pangasinan
ákop get with both hands
Hanunóo
ʔákup handful, as of rice grains
Aklanon
ákop greedy, selfish
Cebuano
akup-akup monopolize a job, possession, or enjoyment of something
Maranao
akop scoop with both hands
sa-ʔakop two handfuls
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
akup a measure of two handfuls
Tiruray
ʔakuf the contents of one's two cupped hands; try to get all for oneself
Kenyah
akop with hands cupped; two hands full
m-akop scoop with both hands
Ngaju Dayak
akop scoop up with the two cupped hands
aŋkop small pincers or tweezers used to extract facial hair
Malay
aŋkup pincers, opening and shutting as tongs. Of an animal snapping its jaws, a person nipping with his fingers, a butcher seizing and tearing off the skin of a slaughtered animal
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
aŋkup small pincers used for plucking
Lampung
akuʔ take something
Old Javanese
aŋkup pincers or tongs
Gorontalo
waʔupo catch, capture, be caught or captured
OC Bugotu
agu pick up by handfuls
OC Lenkau
aŋo-an yellow
Ere
aŋw-an yellow
Leipon
ŋo-an yellow
Ahus
aŋo-an yellow
Kele
aŋw-an yellow
Papitalai
aŋo-an yellow
Sengseng
yaŋ yellow
Watut
yaŋayaŋ yellow
Fijian
caŋo the turmeric plant, Curcuma longa, Zingiberaceae; whites use the roots to prepare a curry; natives prepare rerega from it, used as food, but chiefly to daub over women at childbirth, and over newly born babes
Tongan
aŋo kind of ginger or ginger-like plant (Curcuma longa) from which turmeric is made
Rennellese
aŋo turmeric plant: Curcuma longa
OC Seimat
aŋo-aŋo-n yellow
Arop
yaŋo-ŋo-ana yellow
Manam
aŋo-aŋo turmeric; yellow
Bugotu
aŋo-aŋo yellow
Nggela
aŋo-aŋo yellow
Lingarak
yaŋeyaŋ yellow
WMP Cebuano
aŋu-aŋu senile
Iban
aŋu half-witted, silly
anaŋ aŋu-aŋu don't be silly (Scott 1956), silly, foolish, fond (Richards 1981)
OC Lou
aŋus blow the nose
Ere
aŋus blow the nose
Bugotu
aŋusu to spit, spit on; spittle
Nggela
aŋusu to spit
aŋusu-lagi to spit out, as blood
Arosi
ŋusu to spit
ŋusu-ŋusu spittle, poison of snakes
WMP Lun Dayeh
i-apeh where?
Kelabit
apeh which?
Iban
apa what?
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
apa matter, what is said or written
Malay
apa what; how; which; somehow. An idiomatic word giving a suggestion of indefiniteness or interrogation -- even contemptuous interrogation -- to the sentence in which it occurs
ber-apa how much/how many?
apa-apa any, aught; any whatever
Talaud
apa what?
Karo Batak
apa what?
apa-i which?
Mentawai
apa what?; which?; why?; how?
Old Javanese
apa what? (interrogative pronoun); also simply to introduce a question
Javanese
apa what?; what (kind of) thing?; to do what?; what, that which; whatever, anything; something, anything, everything; exclamation pointing out something, or holding something up to derision
apa-apa something; anything; everything
Balinese
apa what?; apa is used as an 'empty' word at the beginning or end of a sentence to indicate that the sentence is a question
Sasak
apa what? Used as an answer from one of higher to one of lower status, as from father to son: 'yes'
Sangir
apa (interrogative pronoun) what?; (indefinite pronoun) something; also in a contemptuous sense: someone
seŋ-apa how much?
Tontemboan
apa what, which
saŋa-apa one thing, in contrast to another
Bare'e
apa a word (sometimes in the a), that is used more or less enclitically to make the meaning of a free morpheme more general, often translated with 'or so', 'or something similar', etc.
apa teʔi what is this? (fixed expression in a game)
Tae'
apa what? what sort of?
apa-ŋku mine, what is mine
k-(um)-a-apa or (marker of disjunction)
saŋ-apa how long?
Proto-South Sulawesi
*apa what
Mandar
apa what?
saŋ-apa how much?
Makassarese
apa what; something, of unique significance
Wolio
apa what?
tua apa how?
CMP Kowiai/Koiwai
lafe what?
Komodo
apa what; so-and-so, something; wherefore
Manggarai
apa something, anything; genitals; whatever (used jocularly, or when uncertain); never mind, it's alright; what?
Rembong
apa what?
Ngadha
apa what?; which?; what kind of?; wherefrom/from what?
Sika
apa what? (indefinite pronoun)
apa-ha how much/many?
Lamboya
aha what?
Dobel
ya what?
Watubela
afa what?
OC Hawaiian
aha why? what? for what reason? to do what? to ask what?
WMP Malay
meŋ-apa why; reason why
Old Javanese
aŋ-apa in what way? how?
Javanese
ŋ-apa to (be) doing what? why?
Mandar
maŋ-apa-i why? what is the reason?
Makassarese
aŋŋ-apa-i why?
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-apa(apa)-i do something to
Makassarese
aŋŋ-apà-i do something to someone
WMP Dairi-Pakpak Batak
apa-i interrogative of person: who?
apa-i-na which? which part?
Tae'
maʔ apa-i what is wrong with him/her?
CMP Paulohi
afa-i what?
WMP Malay
apa apa any; aught; any whatever
Bahasa Indonesia
apa apa anything; what(so)ever
Javanese
apa apa something; anything; everything
Balinese
apa apa whatever?; also indefinite pronoun: anything
Sasak
apa apa something
Tae'
apa apa whatever; anything; everything
Makassarese
apa apa thing(s)
CMP Rembong (Wangka)
apa apa something
Ngadha
apa apa something; anything; everything; any one
OC [Mota
sava sava everything, all sorts of things]
WMP Bahasa Indonesia
tidak apa apa it's nothing, never mind
Tae'
taé apa apa nothing; never mind; whatever (Formosan only)
Formosan Seediq
apa load; act of carrying
m-apa to carry
Pazeh
m-apa carry on one’s back
Thao
apa carry on the back
m-apa carry on the back, as a load of wood or a child
WMP Sangir
papa- (in composition) armpit, esp. of animals (pigs, etc.); side under the armpit
Palauan
uʔáuʔ crotch
Chamorro
afaʔfaʔ armpit, crotch
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
apat to lie in wait in ambush (what hunters do during a game drive as they wait for the game to be driven towards them)
Ayta Abellan
apát to wait or watch for a wild pig; to put a trap below a dammed up place in a stream
Hanunóo
ʔapát-an trail or pathway used by animals
WMP Yami
apatot small tree or shrub, the noni (Morinda citrifolia)
Itbayaten
apatot tree whose sap, extracted from pounded bark, is used as dye
Ibatan
apātot kind of hardwood tree with yellow fruit used as worm medicine, and leaves used as a poultice
Ilokano
apátot kind of shrub whose fruit may be used as soap, and whose roots yield a red dye: Morinda bracteata
Isneg
apátut a rubiaceous shrub whose inflorescence consists of a dense head with leaflike bracts and white flowers; its fruits are edible: Morinda bracteata
WMP Ilokano
appéd obstructed, hindered, impeded, blocked
Malagasy
áfitra stopped, hindered, or impeded
WMP Ilokano
aplág to spread, unfurl (as a towel on the sand)
Bontok
ʔaplag sleeping mat
Kankanaey
men-aplág to lay the cloth, the mat; to make the bed
Casiguran Dumagat
aplag to be lying over on a slant (of grass, growing rice, corn, etc.); to push grass over so that it is not standing straight up
Ibaloy
apdag to spread something --- of things that were folded or rolled (as rug, sleeping mat, blanket)
Ayta Abellan
aplag lying as dead
WMP Kankanaey
appéd rough, harsh (to the taste)
Aklanon
ápeod having the flavor of raw or unripe bananas
Cebuano
aplúd having an insipid to slightly bitter taste with an astrigent effect, such as unripe bananas
Maranao
peled sourness of taste
CMP Bimanese
firi harsh-tasting, acid, tart
WMP Ilokano
aprós light touch
y-aprós to stroke, touch gently with the hand
pag-aprós massage ointment
apros-an to rub softly; touch tenderly
Bontok
ʔaplus to massage, as a tired back, using a salve such as coconut oil
Pangasinan
aplos to pass the hand over something, caress
Ayta Abellan
aploh to swipe
Agutaynen
apros-on to rub a person’s back; to brush dirt, sand, etc. off the surface of something; to remove grain heads of rice by rubbing or sliding the fingers down the stalk
WMP Bontok
ʔapíd braid
Ifugaw
apíd to braid, entwine, interlace; applicable to anything that can be or that is braided, such as ropes, strings, threads, mats, women's hair
Kayan (Uma Juman)
apir either of the halves of two things joined (as of two bananas that are fused together)
WMP Cebuano
ápid arrange things of approximately the same size in a neat stack
Maranao
apid ancestor, descendant; underclothes
apid-apid successive generations; something arranged by layers
Manobo (Dibabawon)
apid layer, thickness (as of clothing, mat); to double, add a second layer
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
apid of flat objects with considerable surface, or of layers of clothing, to be one on top of the other
Mansaka
ampid to stack (as wood)
Gorontalo
wapidu layers
Tae'
maŋ-apiʔ lie in layers, one on top of the other
WMP Isneg
apípiŋ cheek (of man)
Kalinga
apíŋ cheek
Isinay
apiŋ face
Pangasinan
apíŋ the cheeks
ma-apíŋ to have big cheeks
Cebuano
ápiŋ cheek
WMP Kelabit
pirit small bird with long beak, rice bird
Ngaju Dayak
ampit small bird which does great damage in the ricefields; there are two kinds: black with white beak, and red with ash-gray neck and green beak
Malay (Jakarta)
pirit finch
Sundanese
piit small finch-like bird
WMP Tagalog
apís kind of rattan
Iban
apis rattan bag or basket
Formosan Thao
apu grandparent
WMP Itbayaten
apo kinship term for vocative only: grandparent, great grandpartent, grandchild, great grandchild, etc.
apo any close relation more than one generation removed in either direction, e.g. grandparent, brother of grandparent, grandchild, grandchild of brother
Ilokano
apó grandparent; master, mistress; sir, madam; grandchild
Isneg
āpó grandparent; master, mistress; sir, madam; chief, lord; grandchild
Itawis
afú God
Bontok
ʔapú the relationship between relatives at the second (or greater) ascending or descending generation; grandparent, grandchild; an old person, a grandparent; a leader, a person in charge, usually applied only in situations which are not traditional Bontoc institutions
ʔápu term of address for all of one's relatives at the second (or greater) ascending or descending generation; grandparent, great grandparent; grandchild, great grandchild
Kankanaey
apó grandfather, grandmother, grandchild
Ifugaw
apú grandfather, grandmother, granduncle, grandaunt; also used in the sense of 'master', 'leader having the authority of prestige', 'teacher', 'superior', etc.
Gaddang
afo reciprocal relationship between grandparent and grandchild
Casiguran Dumagat
apó grandparent, grandchild
Pangasinan
ápo term of respect used especially when addressing a priest
apó grandchild, great-nephew, great-niece
Kapampangan
ápu grandparent, esp. grandmother. As a term of address, ápu is used for grandfather and grandmother; as a term of reference, usually it is restricted to grandmother, with iŋkoŋ being used for grandfather; also used with saints' names: Apu Lusya 'Saint Lucy'
apú grandchild
Tagalog
apó grandchild
Hanunóo
ʔápu owner, master, often used figuratively
Abaknon
ampu grandchild
Aklanon
apó(h) grandchild
Cebuano
apú grandchild
Maloh
ampu grandchild
Tae'
ampo grandchild
Makassarese
ampu owner of something
Makassarese (Salayar)
ampu grandchild
CMP Dobel
sabu grandparent/grandchild
OC Numbami
abu grandparent
Southeast Ambrym
avu grandparents and their siblings
WMP Bontok
ʔin-apú daughter-in-law; son-in-law
Kankanaey
in-apó son-in-law; daughter-in-law
Aklanon
in-ápo grandchildren
Tontemboan
n-apo-ʔ deceased grandfather
WMP Kankanaey
ka-apo-án great grandfather; great grandsire; great grandmother
Aklanon
ka-apó-apó-han future generation(s) (of grandchildren)
Manobo (Sarangani)
ke-epo-an descendants
WMP Itbayaten
maŋa-apo vocative term: grandchild, spouse of grandchild, great grandchild
Tontemboan
maŋa-apo-ʔ the ancestors
WMP Itbayaten
pa-apo vocative term: fond name for grandparent, grandaunt/uncle, or any person two generations older
Tontemboan
p-apo-ʔ vocative of apo-ʔ
OC Nali
pa-apu grandfather
Bipi
pa-apu grandfather
WMP Bontok
paŋ-apú the social unit comprising all of the descendants of a single ancestor
Cebuano
paŋ-apú have grandchildren
SHWNG Windesi
t-apu grandparent; grandchild
OC Tolai
t-abu- grandparent; grandchild; reciprocal term used between a woman and her parents-in-law
WMP Itbayaten
apo-en reference term: person regarded as grandparent, grandparent substitute; master, boss
Ifugaw
apúw-on adopt a child as one's grandchild
Bikol
apó-ʔ-on grandparents; ancestors, forefathers
WMP Tagalog
ápo-ʔ patriarch; mogul
Bikol
ápo-ʔ grandparent; sire; respectful title for old men or women; imp; a small human-like creature living in little earth mounds and possessing magical powers capable of turning people into animals such as toads, snakes
Palawan Batak
ʔapó-ʔ father's father; mother's father; male grandparents and their male siblings; son's son, daughter's son
Maranao
apo-ʔ ancestor; grandchild
Manobo (Dibabawon)
apu-ʔ grandparent; grandchild
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
apu-ʔ grandparent; grandchild
Manobo (Sarangani)
apo-ʔ grandparent; grandchild
Proto-Minahasan
*apo-ʔ grandparent; ancestor; lord (title)
Tontemboan
apo-ʔ grandparent; Sir, as a title given to gods and men: lord, ruler
WMP Isneg
āp-apó Lord
Kankanaey
ap-apó forefathers, ancestors
Maranao
apoʔ-apoʔ ancestors; patriarch
WMP Ifugaw
ápuk drizzling rain
Kalamian Tagbanwa
apuk dust
Palawan Batak
ʔapók dust, soot
Mansaka
apok mold; moldy, mildewed
Kelabit
apuk fine ashes or dust in the air; sawdust, facial powder
m-apuk dusty
Berawan (Long Teru)
apok dust
Iban
apok fog, mist; dust, dirt
apok empelawaʔ (old) cobwebs
Sentah Land Dayak
apuk ash
OC Arosi
sahu dust, sawdust
WMP Maranao
puni tree fern: Marattia sp.
Napu
apuni tree fern Alsophila sp.
Bare'e
ampúni tree fern. The pith is fed to pigs, the wood is burned as a mosquito repellant, the roots (a pretty black) are chopped into bits and used 1. as beads, and 2. as a magical charm
CMP Manggarai
puni tree fern, Cyathea sp. (Verheijen 1967-70); the young leaves of Cyathea are eaten, and this may have been important when collecting food in the forests (Verheijen 1984)
Rembong
puni tree fern, Cyathea sp.
WMP Kadazan Dusun
ampuŋ float, swim
Malagasy
áfona rest on the water, float, swim
Malay
apoŋ floating on water; driftwood
apoŋ-an floats for nets; fisherman's marks
Acehnese
ampōŋ float of a fishing net, buoy
apōŋ floating on the water, light in weight
Sundanese
apuŋ-apuŋ-an bob up and down, pitch and toss, as on the waves
manuk apuŋ skylark
Sasak
ŋ-ampuŋ suspended from something
CMP Kambera
apuŋu float, bob on the surface
WMP Karo Batak
ampuŋ-ampuŋ float of a fishline or fish net
Sasak
ampuŋ ampuŋ kind of floating acquatic plant
OC Lusi
avuŋ-avuŋ fish net floats
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
apuR chew betel nut with lime
Paiwan
apu betelnut quid
WMP Samal
apug betel chew (literary)
WMP Bontok
ʔapúy make someone break out in boils for having transgressed on one's property or having stolen something belonging to one
Cebuano
apúy boil which goes deep into the flesh and develops slowly, esp. around the knees
WMP Bontok
ʔaʔa expression of warning to small children, as for example against touching something hot or dirty
Kadazan Dusun
aʔa no
Bintulu
ã no, not
WMP Isneg
adās Scleria sp. A sedge whose leaves have very sharp edges. Attached to the ladder of the house where a sacrifice is offered, it keeps out evil spirits. It is also added to the feathers of the dúlaw ornament
Bahasa Indonesia
adas kind of hemp, Cannabis sativa; a substance such as marijuana, hashish, etc., made from the leaves and flowers of this plant
Tae'
aʔdaʔ kind of plant with serrated stem that can cause wounds; the leaves are also very sharp
WMP Ilokano
aráy interjection of pain
Tagalog
aráy ouch! (said e.g. when feeling the pain of an injection)
Bikol
aráy ouch
mag-aráy to cry out in pain
Agutaynen
adey ~ arey interjection of pain or distress
Cebuano
agáy ~ aráy ouch!
WMP Kenyah
aren nobility
Kayan
aren glory, splendor
Muna
aro former village or district chief
CMP Erai
aran person of the highest caste
WMP Romblomanon
k-ari someone comes to a particular place towards the speaker
Hiligaynon
ári here (short form to mean near the speaker)
Tausug
k-ari to come (to the speaker or somewhere near the speaker, as in kari kaw ‘come here!’)
k-ari-an to give or hand something over to someone
WMP Bikol
m-ári come here!
Aklanon
m-alí come on! let's go!
Tausug
m-ari to come (to the speaker or somewhere near the speaker)
Malay
mari hither
CMP Dhao/Ndao
mai to come
WMP Ilokano
arák gather, congregate, collect, come together, assemble, convene
Abaknon
agak to take care of, to rear
Cebuano
ágak give the hand to lead or lend support; guide someone in moral principles
Maranao
agak lead; gather, as hen gathers chicks; influence
agak-aʔ brood of fowls
agak-an flock of fowls
Binukid
agak for the male of a fowl to mate with the female
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
aɣak lead someone by the hand, as a blind person or a baby just learning to walk; teach a skill to an apprentice; figuratively of a supernatural leading a human whether in a helpful sense or otherwise
Tiruray
ʔarak lead by the hand
Kelabit
arak bamboo handrail used when descending steps or crossing a bridge
Malagasy
áraka according to, following
aràh-ina be followed, be pursued, be prosecuted, be sued, as for debts
taf-àraka going together
mi-àraka go together, accompany, associate
árak-áfo immediately, in immediate succession
Malay
arak processional progress
Proto-Sangiric
*aRak lead, conduct, convey
Tae'
arak summon, call together for an activity or a meeting
CMP Manggarai
arak lead by force, as someone or something tied by a rope (e.g. pig, person)
WMP Tiruray
n-arak one being trained, an apprentice
Old Javanese
in-arak to conduct in procession
WMP Kelabit
ŋ-arak to guide, as a blind man
Malagasy
man-áraka follow, pursue, obey, agree to, prosecute
Malay
meŋ-arak move in procession, of a show passing through the streets, etc.
Karo Batak
ŋ-arak "accompany" a prince
ŋ-arak-ŋ-arak follow, come behind or after someone; drive cattle before one
ŋ-arak-ken walk behind someone
Sundanese
ŋ-arak parade ceremoniously (as a bridal couple or a newly circumcized boy), hold a procession
Javanese
ŋ-arak take something around in public
WMP Malay
ber-arak in order one behind the other, as driving clouds
Mongondow
mog-agak to copulate, of animals (e.g. horses)
WMP Maranao
agak-agak lead a person, follow in a contemplated action
Javanese
arak-arak parade
WMP Ilokano
agáma kind of large, white crab
Isneg
axamā kind of small crab (a traveller who eats them while on the road is liable to suffer from colic, immediately after his arrival at his destination)
Bontok
ʔagama ~ agma crab; to gather crabs
Casiguran Dumagat
agima ocean crab; to look for crabs
Pangasinan
alamá small crabs
Sambal (Botolan)
ayáma large crab (in sea only)
Kapampangan
ema black-colored crab
WMP Maranao
agani harvest rice
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
eɣani harvest
Kelabit
ranih harvest
pe-ranih the small bamboo or iron knife used to remove the rice head in harvesting; the harvest
WMP Iban
resam a fern: Gleichenia sp.
Malay
resam forest fern: Gleichenia linearis, of which some parts are like whalebone and make Malay pens
Acehnese
rɨsam kind of fern
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
arsam kind of upright fern
Toba Batak
arsam kind of fern
Minangkabau
ra(n)sam forest fern: Gleichenia linearis, of which some parts are like whalebone and make Malay pens
Proto-Sangiric
*Rəsam fern sp
OC Fijian
caca a fern: Acrostichum aureum, Pteridaceae
Formosan Paiwan
ari let's go!
ari ari you go on ahead!
WMP Yami
ai come
k-ai to bring; in the process
y-ai reason to come, bring
Itbayaten
ayi-ʔi come near; just come! (cited under ayi ‘foot, leg, paw’
Bontok
ʔáli to come; to bring; implies motion toward speaker or speaker’s home
ʔiy-áli come, imperative of áli
maka-lʔi to accompany
Kankanaey
y-áli to bring; to bring forward; to bring in; to adduce; to let come
p-alʔi-en to send; to send down; to send up; to drive forward; to let come
Ifugaw
áli act of coming, arriving, approaching
i-pa-áli to make something arrive
maŋ-áli-da they are actually coming, they are arriving just now
Ifugaw (Batad)
āli for someone to come towards the speaker or hearer
in-y-āli-n was brought to (recipient)
Ibaloy
ali this direction, toward me/us, coming --- both of space or time; of space, where ali lends a meaning component of this-direction, e.g. daw ‘go’, daw ali ‘come’; of time, where ali lends a meaning component of future; give it here! Give it to me!
Karo Batak
ari ko come here!
Tonsawang
ahi to come
Mongondow
agiʔ come here!; toward the speaker
agiʔ akow hither and thither
agiʔ-on it must be brought here (to the speaker)
Formosan Hoanya
magi come
Paiwan
m-ari ask someone to accompany oneself
WMP Yami
m-ai come
Bontok
ʔ<um>áli to come; to bring; implies motion towards speaker or speaker’s home
Kankanaey
um-áli come, come along, arrive
Ifugaw
um-áli he (she) comes, he (she) will come
Ifugaw (Batad)
um-āli to come towards the speaker or hearer
Kelabit
marih to come
Malay
mari hither
kian ka-mari hither and thither
bawa mari to bring
Simalur
mali come (here, hither)
Karo Batak
m-ari Come here! Come on! Come along!
Toba Batak
m-ari Come here! Let’s go!
Balinese
m-ahi hither, here; the idea of movement is not expressed, hence mahi = ‘come here’
m-ahi-yaŋ Bring it here! Come here!
Sangir
m-ahi Come! Come along!
m-ahi ko Come here!
karuane m-ahi day after tomorrow
Mongondow
magiʔ hither, toward the speaker
ma-magiʔ coming hither, coming in this direction
Chamorro
magi here (toward or in the direction of the speaker)
CMP Keo
mai to come
Riung
mai to come
Anakalangu
mai to come
Tetun (Dili)
mai to come
Galoli
mai to come
Waima'a
mai to come
Tugun
ma to come
Kola
ma to come
Ujir
ma to come
Teluti
mai to come
Gah
mai come
Saparua
mai come
Batu Merah
o-mai to come
Morella
oi-mai come
Buruese
mahi to come
Onin
ma to come
SHWNG As
ma to come
Woi
ra-ma come
OC Andra
me to come
Ponam
mai to come
Bali (Uneapa)
mai to come
Arop
ma to come
Bebeli
mɛ to come
Kaulong
mɛ to come
Tarpia
-mai to come
Ali
-ma to come
Mbula
-mar come (to the speaker)
Saliba
ma toward the speaker
Papapana
mai hither
Uruava
ra-mai to come
Ririo
me to come
Marau₂
ra-mai come
Arosi
mari hither, come hither (= mai); rarely used
Bonkovia
mi to come
Rapanui
mai motion toward speaker
WMP Ilokano
águd scraping the edge of a board of a strip of bamboo, etc. with the edge of a tool
Bontok
ʔágud to sharpen to a point, as a post, stick, or pencil
Tiruray
ʔarud to shave flat a length of split rattan, in preparing it for use as lashing
Tae'
arruʔ scrape, scrape off
ue arruʔ rattan that has already been scraped
WMP Ilokano
aroó filao, beefwood, Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. A leafless, dioecious tree with oblong cones; roots and bark are used for medicinal purposes: their infusion, when drunk at regular intervals, is supposed to cure bad humors, especially in women suffering from diseases of the womb
Casiguran Dumagat
agú type of tree, Casuarina equisetifolia (found growing along the sea shores in the Casiguran area; it looks like a type of pine, but is not
Tagalog
agúho a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Bikol
agúho tree possessing pine-like needles: Casuarina equisetifolia
Hanunóo
ʔagúʔu a tree (Casuarina equisetifolia Linn.), pinelike in appearance
Malay
(e)ru a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Toba Batak
aru large tree which provides a fine shade
Palauan
ŋas ironwood
Chamorro
gagu ironwood tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
SHWNG Windesi
yaru a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Numfor
yār a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
OC Gitua
yaru a tree: Casuarina sp.
Bugotu
aru a tree: Casuarina
Kwaio
lalu the ironwood tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Lau
salu sp. of tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
salu-tolo sp. of tree: Casuarina nodiflora
'Āre'āre
raru ironwood, a littoral tree
Sa'a
sälu the ironwood tree, Casuarina equisetifolia; the needles are crushed and placed over bodies exposed for burial; a red stain is made from the scraped bark of the trees and used as a preservative for fishing-lines
Arosi
saru sp. of tree, Casuarina, fruitless, unlike tarumare (sp. of Casuarina planted in villages, and more or less sacred; a wreath of Casuarina needles thrown into a grave either by each mourner, or by one of each clan')
Mota
aru the casuarina tree, which has a sacred character; hence tano aruaru 'a sacred place with aru trees'
Fijian
cau kind of ironwood tree: Casuarina nodiflora
Formosan Taokas
aha one
Saisiyat
ʔæhæ one
WMP Itbayaten
aʔsa one
Moronene
me-ʔasa one
Popalia
asa one
CMP Batu Merah
w-asa one
SHWNG Buli
asa one
WMP Kapampangan
asag incite
Iban
ansak urge, incite, move towards; egg on
Sangir
asageʔ urge someone on to, incite
WMP Ilokano
ásaŋ the pin of a lock that fits in the socket of a key
Kayan
asaŋ mortise and tenon joint (Formosan only)
Formosan Saisiyat
asaŋ village
Bunun
asaŋ village
WMP Aklanon
átas <M evaporate
Javanese
asat dried, become dry
Madurese
asat dried up (of stream or well)
Balinese
asat very thirsty, dried out
CMP Asilulu
asat drought
WMP Ilokano
asép incense, perfume
asp-án to incense, to perfume
Ngaju Dayak
asep smoke
h-asep to smoke
Banjarese
asap smoke
Iban
asap smoke, steam
in-sap smoked (of meat or fish)
Tsat
sauʔ²⁴ smoke (of a fire)
Jarai
asap smoke
Rhade
asap smoke
Malay
asap visible vapor; steam; smoke
asap-kan fumigate
per-asap-an incense-burner
Rejang
asep smoke
Old Javanese
asep incense
p-asep-an incense-burner
Madurese
asep smoke
Balinese
asep smoke, give off smoke; the smoke of sacrifice, incense; thick smoke
asep meñan the smoke of incense
WMP Ivatan
asi flesh
Acehnese
asòë contents, load, flesh (living or dead, but not slaughtered; also the flesh of fruits
asòë naŋgròë the peopling of the land
WMP Bikol
ási describing someone who is a show off
Singhi Land Dayak
asi-asi proud (vain)
WMP Kadazan Dusun
asiz-an the one for whom one makes rice beer
Bisaya (Limbang)
peŋ-asi rice wine
Iban
asiʔ cooked rice
Jarai
asey cooked rice
Rhade
êsei cooked rice
WMP Itbayaten
maŋ-asi to separate aged wine from yeast
Kadazan Dusun
maŋ-asi to make rice beer
WMP Kadazan Dusun
n-asi native beer made from rice
Ma'anyan
nahiʔ cooked rice
Malay
nasi rice in two senses: (i) as cooked in some particular way; and (ii) as the staple food of the Malays
Karo Batak
pajak nasi time to eat
Old Javanese
nasi cooked rice
Madurese
naseʔ cooked rice
Balinese
nasi steamed cooked rice
Sasak
nasiʔ cooked rice
WMP Kankanaey
(a)si verbal prefix indicating simulation, or an action done by many
Cebuano
ási expression needling a person for pretending (as in pretending to sleep); chiding a person jokingly for something one notices for the first time; chiding a person for acting beyond his station
así presume to do something one cannot do
Kelabit
asih pretence
ŋ-asih ignore
Iban
asiʔ victim, dupe
Rejang
asey feel, pretend, make believe, imagine
WMP Cebuano
asi-asi presume to do something one cannot do
asih-asih-un presumptuous, taking for granted
Kelabit
asih asih to pretend (as to pretend not to see another person), ignore someone
OC Wuvulu
atio sneeze
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka
asio sneeze
Formosan Trobiawan
watsu dog
Saisiyat
æhœ dog
Sakizaya
w-acuʔ dog
Thao
atu dog
Bunun
asu dog
Hoanya
atu dog
Siraya
asu dog
Proto-Rukai
*aθo dog
WMP Ilokano
áso dog, bitch
Isneg
áto dog
Itawis
átu dog
Malaweg
asú dog
Bontok
ʔásu dog
Kankanaey
áso dog, bitch
Ifugaw
áhu dog, hound
Casiguran Dumagat
asó dog; use dogs to track down a wounded pig or deer
Ilongot
atu dog
Pangasinan
asó dog
Sambal (Tina)
aso dog
Ayta Abellan
aho dog
Ayta Maganchi
aho dog
Kapampangan
ásu dog
Tagalog
áso dog
Maranao
aso dog
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
asu dog
Maguindanao
ásu dog
Klata
assu dog
Yakan
asu dog
Tboli
ohu dog
Bisaya (Lotud)
asu dog
Kadazan Dusun
t-asu dog
Minokok
tasu dog
Bisaya (Lotud)
asu dog
Bisaya (Limbang)
asu dog
Belait
asaw dog
Berawan (Long Terawan)
acoh dog
Berawan (Long Jegan)
acew dog
Dali'
asaw dog
Miri
au dog
Kenyah (Long Anap)
asu dog
Kayan
asoʔ dog
Bintulu
asəw dog
Melanau (Mukah)
asew dog
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)
asəw dog
Bukat
asu dog
Lahanan
asow dog
Seru
asaw dog
Kapuas
asuʔ dog
Dusun Deyah
asu dog
Iban
asu hunt, hunting
Maloh
asu dog
Cham
aθew dog
Jarai
asew dog
Roglai (Northern)
asəw dog
Malay
gigi asu canine tooth
Acehnese
aséë dog
Gayō
asu dog
Simalur
asu dog
Toba Batak
asu dog, a coarse word much used in insults
Nias
asu dog
Lampung
asu dog
Old Javanese
asu dog, hound
aŋ-asu low, vile ('like a dog')
Javanese
asu dog
n-asu n-asu hunt with dogs
Balinese
asu dog
Sangir
asu dog
asu-ŋ anuʔ hunting dog
asu-n sasi seal
Proto-Minahasan
*asu dog
Tonsea
asu dog
Tontemboan
asu dog; also used of domesticated animals in general
Petapa Taje
asu dog
Banggai
asu dog
Bare'e
asu dog
mo-asu hunt with dogs
Tae'
asu dog
Mandar
asu dog
Buginese
asu dog
Makassarese
asu dog
CMP Manggarai
acu dog (often used to insult and mock people)
Sika
ʔahu dog
Lamaholot
aho dog
Adonara
aho dog
Solorese
aso dog
Kédang
au dog
Anakalangu
asu dog
Kambera
ahu dog
ahu awaŋu witch ( = heavenly dog)
Rotinese
asu dog (only in ritual language)
Atoni
asu dog
Tetun
asu dog
nehan asu canine tooth
Tetun (Dili)
asu dog
Vaikenu
asu dog
Kemak
asu dog
Mambai
ausa dog
Galoli
asu dog
Erai
asu dog
Talur
asu dog
Tugun
ahu dog
Kisar
ahu dog
Roma
ahu dog
East Damar
ahu dog
West Damar
otho dog
Leti
asu dog
Luang
ahu dog
Wetan
ai dog
Selaru
as, asu-re dog
Yamdena
asu dog
babi-asu quadrupeds
Elat
asu dog
Teluti
wasu dog
Paulohi
asu dog
Alune
asu dog
Saparua
asu dog
Hitu
asu dog
asu dog
Asilulu
asu dog
Manipa
asu dog
Larike
aso dog
Wakasihu
aso dog
Batu Merah
asu dog
Morella
asu dog
Buruese
asu dog
Soboyo
asu dog
Sekar
yasi dog
WMP Ifugaw
káhu dog
Tontemboan
ka-asu canine companion
WMP Sambal (Botolan)
maŋ-aho hunt for game with a dog
Tagalog
maŋ-áso hunt for game
Melanau (Mukah)
meŋ-asew hunt using dogs
Iban
ŋ-asu to hunt, go hunting
Simalur
maŋ-asu hunt with dogs
Tontemboan
maŋ-asu hunt with dogs
Banggai
maŋ-asu hunt with dogs
Tae'
maŋ-asu-i hunt with dogs
Buginese
maŋ-asu follow one's heart's desire
WMP Binukid
paŋ-ásu hunt with dogs
Tontemboan
paŋ-asu-n game, what is hunted
WMP Mentawai
asu fetch water
Old Javanese
aŋsu draw or scoop water
Javanese
aŋsu act or way of drawing water from a well
Tondano
asu bamboo to bail out water
Tontemboan
ma-asu fetch water from a spring or river
meŋ-asu-ŋ-asu repeatedly fetch water
ni-asu water that has been fetched
CMP Kédang
ahu fetch water
Buruese
asu-k to draw (as water), dip
OC Wuvulu
atu bailer
atum-ia bail out water
Tongan
ohu dip up, ladle; to bale (a boat, or the water in it); catch little fish by dipping them up in large numbers
WMP Bikol
asóg an effeminate priest who speaks and attires himself like a woman, wears trinkets, and executes funny movements and provocative contortions during rituals offered to Aswang (witches) -- Bikol mythology
Aklanon
ásog lesbian; any woman who acts outside of the female role; tomboy
Murut (Timugon)
in-asug ritual name for the babalian (shaman)
WMP Ilokano
asók smoke, fume, vapor, steam
Isneg
asúʔ smoke, fume, vapor, steam
Itawis
atúk smoke
Bontok
ʔasúk smoke; be smoky, give off smoke
Ifugaw
ahúk smoke
Casiguran Dumagat
asók smoke; for smoke to drift up from a fire
Sambal (Botolan)
ahók smoke
Kapampangan
asúk smoke
CMP Rembong
asuk blackened by smoke
WMP Cebuano
asuntíŋ kind of erect branching shrub, wild but occasionally planted as ornamental. The leaves are used in treating skin fungi: Cassia alata
Old Javanese
suntiŋ a particular kind of flower: Cassia occidentalia
WMP Dairi-Pakpak Batak
asuŋ incite, spur to action
CMP Sika
asuŋ incite cocks to fight
Formosan Amis
asik to sweep
sa-asik broom
Bunun (Takituduh)
asik to sweep
a-asik broom
Paiwan
asik to weed, remove weeds
WMP Bontok
ʔatá expression of displeasure or dislike of another person
Aklanon
atá(h) Oh, my goodness (expression of surprise)
Formosan Amis
ata let's go!
Bunun
ata we (inclusive); our, let's go
WMP Tagalog
áta prepositive pronoun: our, ours; yours and mine (addressed to a familiar)
ata-ŋ báhay, báhay n-ata our (incl.) house
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
ata we
CMP Rotinese
ata non-emphatic form of the 1pl. incl. personal pronoun
OC Gedaged
-ad suffix added to some finite verb stems to indicate that the undergoer of the action is the first person plural inclusive
i-fun-ad he hit us
Tawala
ata our (inclusive)
Nggela
anda pronoun: us, used after compound verbs such as lavimbule
Samoan
ata first person singular inclusive nominal pronoun with plural reference
ʔo ata tama my (dear) children (woman speaking)
si ata tama my (dear) child (woman speaking)
Rennellese
ata-a possessive (a-class, plural possessed objects). Ours, of ours (dual, inclusive)
WMP Ilokano
atáb flood tide, flux, flow
um-atáb to rise, to flow
Kapampangan
atáb tide
Aklanon
átab overflow slightly, flood over a little bit
WMP Tagalog
átag persistently, repeatedly
Tiruray
ʔatag intend, mean to do something
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
atag obstinate, stubborn
Javanese
atag one who does things only when pressured or threatened
Balinese
atag spur on, incite, encourage; invite; drive out
WMP Ilokano
átaŋ offer food to the spirits (a relic of animism)
Itawis
átaŋ religious ceremonial float made in time of calamity
Casiguran Dumagat
átaŋ make a sacrifice or special offering to the spirits (a table is set up with food and gifts: rice, a chicken cooked without salt, cigarettes, sugar, etc.)
Pangasinan
átaŋ offering composed of coconut, cake, etc. for the purpose of placating malevolent spirits, usually made before sunset; to make such an offering
Ayta Abellan
ataŋ sacrifice or offering made to the spirits
Bikol
átaŋ a sacrifice offered to the gugúraŋ (household spirits carried around on the person) as a sign of thanksgiving consisting of one tenth of the harvest, later eaten by participants in the ritual (Bikol mythology); gift, sacrifice
mag-ataŋ offer or present a gift; to sacrifice something
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
átaŋ-átaŋ species of poisonous river crab
Tagalog
átaŋ-átaŋ scorpion
WMP Aklanon
atáŋ a room divider
Cebuano
atáŋ watch, but not carefully, keep an eye on; watch for something or someone to pass; ambush
Maranao
ataŋ block, counteract
Kayan
ataŋ a border board
ataŋ avoʔ the wooden edge to the hearth
Bintulu
ataŋ blocking, obstructing
m-ataŋ stop someone by blocking the way
Banjarese
ataŋ fence around a graveyard; place for the hearth, made of heaped-up earth
Acehnese
ateuëŋ dyke in a wet ricefield
Sangir
ataŋ a separated part of the floor of a Sangirese house; a guest whom one wishes to receive properly is invited to stay there
WMP Bontok
ʔátaŋ pole from which a load is suspended and which is supported on the shoulders of two men
Kankanaey
átaŋ pole, stick, shank of the gimáta (two baskets, round at the brim and square at the base, joined together with a pole, which also runs over them; it is much used by men to carry loads)
Tagalog
átaŋ raising of a load to someone's head or shoulders
Aklanon
atáŋ put up, hoist
Kelabit
ŋ-ataŋ carry on a pole between two people
WMP Hanunóo
ʔátaŋ one of the underlying cross-pieces used in constructing the flooring of a house; shorter flooring strips may be placed on the átaŋ
Cebuano
átaŋ shelf set next to a stove at the same height with it to hold the pots and pans
Maranao
antaŋ-an framework (as of a house); base line
Kelabit
ataŋ crossbeam in house construction
CMP Kédang
ataŋ house beam
WMP Isneg
attá an unhusked kernel of rice mixed with husked or cooked rice
Itawis
attá rice husk
Maranao
ataʔ remnant composed of husks and unhusked rice
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
ataʔ unhusked rice mixed with that which is husked, or unground corn mixed with that which is ground
Kelabit
ataʔ rice grains with a husk among the husked grains after pounding
Berawan (Long Terawan)
ata paddy with husk that remains after pounding
Banjarese
antah remnant of rice husk that remains attached to grain after the pounding
Iban
antah padi in the husk that still remains after pounding
Malay
antah husk; sheath (of grain). The pieces of dry husk shaken off in the process of winnowing
Minangkabau
atah rice-chaff
Tae'
ata unhusked rice grain left among the husked grains
WMP Ilokano
átar to level, to prepare (a new rice field)
Tagalog
átag digging and levelling (said of roadbuilding and the like)
Sundanese
antar flat, level with the ground
CMP Fordata
yatak cover, cover oneself with; envelop oneself with
Kei
yatak cover, lay something across
Buruese
atek cover, as with a blanket
WMP Maranao
antel itch
antel-antel itchiness, craving or longing
Sundanese
ateul itch
sireum ateul the small red ant
Buginese
anteʔ itchy
CMP Selaru
atal itchy
WMP Cebuano (SE Bohol)
ateʔ 1pl in oblique
Tambunan Dusun
d-atoʔ 1dl in oblique (Jason Lobel p.c.)
WMP Rejang
ati not yet
CMP Bimanese
ati no, not; negative marker
OC Motu
lasi negative particle, not
Mono-Alu
ati not (jussive)
WMP Hanunóo
ʔáti there, designating a place far from both speaker and person spoken to, especially if out of sight
Kayan (Busang)
ati, atiʔ third person demonstrative
Kayan (Uma Juman)
ati-h that (distant)
Malagasy
atý here, in this place
átsy, atsý there, yonder; used of a place well known and conceived of, but not seen at the time of speaking
WMP Itawis
assímal flea
Kelabit
g-esimel bedbug
Tring
simel bedbug
WMP Cebuano
átip join pieces by sewing, welding or pasting
Tiruray
ʔatif space closely, side-by-side
Kenyah (Long Anap)
atip forceps used to pick up hot coals
CMP Buruese
ati-h squeeze with tongs or pincers
ati-t tongs, pincers
WMP Cebuano
átis bruise, cussing out or anything unpleasant that can be inflicted on one (example sentence refers to being 'boxed')
Iban
atis exclaim; exclaim and egg on; (call out and) encourage people to quarrel
WMP Chamorro
gwatu there --- in that direction (away from speaker and addressee)
OC Roviana
atu an expletive implying movement away of speaker or those addressed
atu-atu Go on! Move on!
Tongan
atu hence, away from here, out, forth, outwards, onwards; to or towards you; thither, to the place aimed at or journeyed towards; onward in time
Niue
atu directive particle, away from the speaker, towards the person addressed; to give (to the person addressed)
Futunan
atu towards the addressee (directional)
saʔele atu March forwards! Advance!
Samoan
atu away out (generally denotes a literal or figurative movement away from a particular position where the speaker is and in the direction of the person addressed); across; away and above (greater than)
Tuvaluan
atu away from speaker; further; more than
Kapingamarangi
adu toward the listener
Nukuoro
adu toward hearer
Rennellese
atu directional particle indicating distance away from speaker and addressee
Anuta
atu indicates action directed away from the speaker or point of reference
Rarotongan
atu correlative to mai, used with verbs, etc. to indicate a direction away from the speaker in reference to either time or space; away from, away, forth: used to emphasize future time
Maori
atu correlative to mai, used with verbs, etc. to indicate a direction away from the speaker in reference to either time or space
whaka-atu to point out, show; call attention to
Hawaiian
aku particle expressing direction away from the speaker, and time either past (with nei) or future; the particle contrasts with mai, and sometimes may be translated “away” or “to say”
WMP Yami
atovaŋ to stand facing each other
ka-tovaŋ face-to-face with
Ibatan
atobaŋ line up something, esp. plants
Itawis
atúbaŋ front
ma-túbaŋ to face
maŋa-túbaŋ confront
Bikol
mag-atúbaŋ confront or face; face up to, contend with
ka-atúbaŋ the person that you are facing
atubáŋ-an front
Hanunóo
ʔatubáŋ front or presence
sa atubáŋ-an in front (of), in the presence (of)
Aklanon
atúbaŋ face (up to), confront, stand/appear in front of; front
atubáŋ-an front, in front of
atubaŋ-án genitals
Hiligaynon
atúbaŋ to face, confront, stand before
atubáŋ-an in front of
Cebuano
atubáŋ face towards; set oneself to doing something as it needs to be done
pa-atubáŋ towards, in a direction to
atubaŋ-án genitalia, usually female (euphemism)
atubáŋ-an place in front of, in the face of
Maranao
atobaŋ face each other in court; equivalent
Subanen/Subanun
gatbaŋ to face
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
etuvaŋ in front of; stand or be in front of someone or something
WMP Gaddang
atuk smoke
Dusun Malang
atuk smoke
Dusun Deyah
atuk smoke
Samihim
atuk smoke
Formosan Kavalan
atuR stone wall; barracks, military camp; bank piled up with stones
WMP Yami
atoy stone wall
atoy-in to build a stone wall
Itbayaten
átoy stone wall (not linked together by cement or lime and sand; stones piled atop one another
Ifugaw
átul a stone wall built up with stones on both of its sides; it is not a retaining wall (the Ifugaw may construct such a double stone wall above the upper border of the village stope)
Ibaloy
atol stone wall, used of all kinds (as property boundary, barriers to cattle, retaining walls for rice fields, or low walls to prevent sliding of upland...
Agutaynen
atol a large permanent fish trap made of rocks in the shape of a spade on a playing card; these atol fish traps are very large, and can easily be seen from an airplane
CMP Rotinese
au(s) dew
OC Fijian
yau dew
Rarotongan
au dew
Formosan Atayal
au exclamation: yes; alright; oh!
Papora
aú yes
WMP Kankanaey
aw yes; yea; aye. Often added to other words, mostly conjunctions
Iban
auʔ affirmative, yes, indeed; give assent, agree to, accept
Malay
au yes, it is so (Brunei, Sarawak)
Rejang
au yes
Sasak
aoʔ yes
CMP Yamdena
au yes
OC Gedaged
au yes, certainly
Proto-Micronesian
*au yes (in response to request, command)
Maori
ao yes; pause to gain time in thinking process
OC Lou
aur wind (generic)
Penchal
aul wind (generic)
Pak
ouh wind (generic)
Numbami
aula wind
Motu
laura-bada southeast trade wind (brings refreshing coolness from the sea)
OC Gilbertese
awa exclamation of surprise
Mota
awa exclamation in lamentation, sad surprise
WMP Pangasinan
awáŋ extent, spaciousness
ma-awáŋ extensive, spacious
Kapampangan
áwaŋ window
Tagalog
awáŋ interval of space
Cebuano
awáŋ space between the upper two front teeth
Manobo (Dibabawon)
ma-awaŋ clear, open (as a road)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
awaŋ open, as a field; clear; used of a crowd that steps aside to open up a path
Manobo (Kalamansig Cotabato)
awaŋ atmosphere, heavens where the birds fly
Kenyah
awaŋ space; the air
Kayan
awaŋ open up (as a window); make a space; opening; clear away undergrowth; navigable channel in a river
Malay
awaŋ-awaŋ(-an) airy interspace between earth and sky
Karo Batak
awaŋ-awaŋ atmosphere, firmament
Rejang
awaŋ-awaŋ atmosphere, outer space
Sundanese
awaŋ-awaŋ atmosphere
Old Javanese
awaŋ-awaŋ sky, air
(m)aŋ-awaŋ-awaŋ (being) in the air, moving through the air
Javanese
awaŋ cloud
awaŋ-awaŋ sky; (up in) the air
Balinese
awaŋ-awaŋ air, sky, unlimited space
Sasak
awaŋ-awaŋ atmosphere
ŋ-awaŋ-awaŋ float or flutter in the air (of things)
Makassarese
awaŋ-awaŋ atmosphere
CMP Komodo
awaŋ sky
Anakalangu
awaŋ sky
Kambera
awaŋu atmosphere, firmament, sky
WMP Hanunóo
àwat help, assistance
ʔum-áwat to help
Ngaju Dayak
awat to help, save, rescue, deliver
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
awát to separate two or more people who are fighting
Tagalog
áwat pacification or separation of quarreling people; weaning of a baby
Palawano
awat weaning (baby), separating quarreling persons
WMP Sambal (Botolan)
áway to quarrel, argue, fight
Ayta Abellan
away to quarrel, argue, fight
Tagalog
áway quarrel; dispute; fight; a noisy quarrel
ka-áway enemy, foe
mag-áway to quarrel or fight (either in words or in action)
mag-ka-áway antagonistic; opposite; conflicting
away-án enmity; hostile state between two enemies
awáy-in to quarrel or fight with someone (emphasis on person quarreled with)
Hanunóo
ʔáway fight, quarrel, argument, struggle
ka-ʔáway enemy, opponent
Aklanon
áway to fight, quarrel, argue
ka-áway enemy
Tausug
away an emphatic refusal (to do something); no! (shouted by someone who is very angry)
WMP Old Javanese
away beckon, wave to; signal (beckon) to come closer
Javanese
awe-awe to wave
ŋ-awe(awe) wave to or at
Balinese
awe wave the hands, make signs with the hands
CMP Bimanese
awe call by beckoning with the hand
Sika
awe beckon someone with the hand
OC Numbami
yawe to wag (as a dog wagging its tail)
WMP Dali'
avai face
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
awe face
WMP Pangasinan
áwey I don't know! (said by speaker of himself; may be followed by pronoun or phrase marked for topic)
Wolio
aai I don't know!
WMP Kapampangan
áwe kind of rattan
Acehnese
awe rattan
Tontemboan
awe curved thorns of the rattan
WMP Ilokano
áwer the sound of a swollen river, a strong wind
ag-awer to roar (streams, wind)
Kankanaey
áwel buzz, roar, hum, whirr (stones thrown with force, spinning tops, etc.)
Kelabit
awer rapids in a river
Sundanese
awer hold back (horse), flow less forcefully (water)
WMP Maranao
awi spread, cover (e.g. for a table), cushion, bedspread
Iban
awi cloth, cover, coverlet, counterpane, bedspread, shawl
Formosan Amis
ayá exclamation showing displeasure or question
WMP Ilokano
ayá an adverb of interrogation implying an additional notion of wonder
Mansaka
aya exclamation of tiredness or release from tension
CMP Kambera
ayá exclamation of astonishment
OC Gedaged
aia interjection indicating wonder, astonishment, etc.
Bugotu
aia exclamation
'Āre'āre
aia exclamation of assent, of wonder
Marshallese
aia slang. Interjection: good grief! Nuts!
Mota
aia exclamation of assent: that's it!
Formosan Taokas
aya mother
Atayal
aia mother, mother's sister. Used in direct address only; otherwise iaia ( < i 'prefix for persons', plus aia)
WMP Subanen/Subanun
gaya maternal uncle (Churchill 1913)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
aya-ʔ aunt (includes several degrees of collaterality)
Tausug
aya term of respect for male nobility (sultan, datuq) of the same generation as one's father (including father); hence: father, uncle
Bisaya
i-aya-ŋ elder sibling (vocative form used only by male speaker)
Kembayan
oya mother (Hudson 1970:310)
Seru
aya aunt, uncle
Iban
aya-ʔ uncle, stepfather. Term of address for men of speaker's father's generation; term of reference for the hearer's father
ayaʔ ibuʔ aunt
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
aya-ŋ mother (Lebar 1975:195)
Malay
aya-h father; sire. More respectful than bapaʔ
Acehnese
aya-h father
Simalur
aea father
mal-aea have a father
Sundanese
aya-h father
Javanese
y-aya father
Balinese
aya-h father (refined speech)
Dampelas
aya mother (address form)
Makassarese
aya mother (for persons of high rank), mother's younger sister
CMP Kambera
aya elder sibling
Leti
yei father
Moa
yei(-ni) uncle
Kei
yai father (address form used by small children, and in mourning songs)
Sula
y-aya mother (Fortgens 1921:108)
SHWNG Arguni
yai mother
Numfor
yai father
OC Motu
lala father's sister; brother's child (woman speaking)
Dobuan
yaia-na female of the first ascendant generation of one's father's village (Fortune 1963:37)
Buma
aia father
WMP Kayan
ayak lead by the hand
Ngaju Dayak
ayak come after, follow (someone who already has gone ahead)
Karo Batak
ayak follow, walk after someone
Simalungun Batak
ayak pursue, track
WMP Maranao
ayak sift
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
ayak sift or separate by straining through a sieve or by winnowing
Nias
aya sieve
mo-aya to sift
Rejang
ayoʔ rice sieve
Sundanese
ayak sift, winnow
Old Javanese
ayak sieve
Makassarese
ayaʔ sifted flour
WMP Sundanese
ŋ-ayak sift, winnow
Javanese
ŋ-ayak strain or screen something
Makassarese
aŋŋ-ayaʔ to sift (only of dry substances)
WMP Maranao
ayak-an sieve; sift
Sundanese
ayak-an sieve, strainer
Javanese
ayak-an strainer, sieve; screen
Makassarese
ayakk-aŋ sieve, made of thin cloth or plaited bamboo
WMP Minangkabau
ayam to plait
Proto-Minahasan
*ayam plait, weave
WMP Ilokano
áyat to confront a gamecock with another gamecock
um-áyat quarrelsome, bellicose
Kankanaey
áyat to set (two roosters) fighting
Aklanon
ayát to challenge (to a fight)
paŋ-ayát to affront, challenge (a whole group)
Manobo (Dibabawon)
ayat aim a spear, prepare to strike
Sasak
ayat threaten
ŋ-ayat to threaten
Tontemboan
ayat threaten, menace
ma-ayat raise sword, whip, or hand in threat
WMP Kankanaey
ayáw go away; depart; leave; quit; run away; scamper away
Bikol
ayáw divorce one another
Aklanon
ayáw abandon, leave behind
Mansaka
ayaw leave something; separate from, divorce
WMP Kankanaey
ayyáw pursue; hunt; take in; chase; catch
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
ayew used of a supernatural being which causes sickness to a person so that he will revive the beliefs and practices of his ancestors
Manobo (Sarangani)
ayaw raid a house or settlement and kill people at random
meŋ-ayaw a raider
Kadazan Dusun
azou to plunder
Kenyah
ayau enemy; war
Kayan
ayaw an enemy in war
Mongondow
ayow go out for booty; earlier: go headhunting
WMP Ifugaw
ayúd swing used by children, who rock themselves backward and forward
Casiguran Dumagat
ayód hammock
Aklanon
ayód-ayód move the waist up and down, back and forth (as in the act of intercourse)
Kayan
ayun mate with, copulate (of animals only)
WMP Balinese
ayum block (a passage); set up obstacles
Tae'
ayun hinder, impede, stand in someone's way so that he cannot move in his work
WMP Mapun
mag-ayun to swing back and forth like a pendulum
ayun-ayun-an a swing
Ngaju Dayak
m-añun to swing
Iban
ayun a swing
Malay
ayun swaying; swinging
(ayun)-ayun-an hammock-cradle; swing
Toba Batak
maŋ-aun to swing back and forth
par-si-aun-an a swing
Balinese
hayun to rock, swing
hayun-an a swinging cot for a baby, cradle; a swing
hayun-hayun sit on a swing, swing for pleasure
WMP Ilokano
áyon right timing in music
um-áyon to favor; suit; agree; fit, conform
Casiguran Dumagat
ayún to agree to, to favor, to conform to, to be in accord with
Ayta Abellan
ayon to take sides with, join with
Tagalog
áyon agreeable; in agreement; in conformity
ayún-an to agree with; to accede to; to approve; to give in to; to humor
Bikol
mag-áyon to include; to implicate, involve
ayún-an to join (become a member of, associate with)
Aklanon
áyon to be in favor of, support, agree with
pa-áyon to parallel, agree with
Maranao
ayon agree, accept, concede
Binukid
ayun to be parallel with (something); to line up (something) parallel with or to (something else); to be convenient, agreeable with (the purpose or wishes of someone, etc.)
WMP Atta (Pamplona)
ayóŋ monkey
Isneg
ayóŋ monkey
Singhi Land Dayak
ayoŋ long-tailed monkey
WMP Maranao
ayoŋ to hang
Kayan
avet ayuŋ a springing suspended cradle
CMP Rembong
azoŋ swing, sway, rock
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
áyus neat (especially of the neat combing of hair)
Tagalog
áyos order; arrangement; condition, shape; tidiness; neatness
ayús-in to settle; to put in order; to arrange; to straighten up; to straighten out
Hanunóo
ʔáyus order, correct form, arrangement
ʔayús-un to be put in order
Agutaynen
mag-ayos to fix or repair something; to arrange things; to get something ready, in order; to solve a problem, fix things up between people
WMP Bontok
ʔáyut sexual desire; lust; be licentious
Kankanaey
áyot semen, sperm; humor. Applied to the male fecundating fluid and the humor from the vulvo-vaginal glands
Kapampangan
ayut coitus
Mansaka
ayot have inordinate sexual desire
ma-ayot immoral man, sex offender
Malay
ayok-ayot-an priapus
Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-ayut copulate
WMP Ngaju Dayak
ajak impulse, stimulus, persuasion, inducement, seduction
Malagasy
mi-àraka go together; accompany; associate
Malay
ajak suasion to action
ajak-kan invite; press; incite
Karo Batak (Kembaren)
ajak spur on, incite, urge on
Sundanese
ajak invite, propose
Old Javanese
ajak ask, invite (to do something together)
Javanese
ajak suggestion to join in someone's activity
Balinese
ajak take with one, take along, invite to do something with one; the verb can only be used to equals or inferiors (iriŋ~ŋiriŋ) must be used for superiors); it implies that one or more persons desires others as individuals (including animals) to do something, to act in some way with the subject or agent
Tae'
arak summon, call up; call together one's subordinates for collective work, gather
WMP Tiruray
ʔaduʔ term of address used to males of the next younger generation by older persons of either sex; often implies that their name or teknonym is not known to the speaker
Iban
ajuh term of address used between men (only intimates)
Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel
www.trussel2.com/ACD
2010: revision 6/21/2020
email: Blust (content) –
Trussel (production)
CognateSets-Index-a