c   

cacao, Theobroma cacao L.

From Spanish cacao, introduced by the colonial Spanish from Mexico, and itself a loan from Nahuatl.

cajole

Borrowing from Malay.

cake:   rice cake

Borrowing from Tamil. The forms in Maranao and Tiruray suggest borrowing through an intermediate language in which final -m became a velar nasal. The most plausible candidates for a loan source thus appear to be Buginese or Makassarese.

cake:   rice cake

Borrowing, most likely from Malay. Under this hypothesis the consistent partial reduplication in Philippine forms is unexplained, but no borrowing hypothesis in the other direction appears plausible.

calf

Borrowing into Casiguran Dumagat from Tagalog.

call (v.), summon (spirits)

Borrowing. Apparently a Malayo-Chamic innovation which has spread to Kadazan Dusun, Ngaju Dayak, the Batak languages, and Javanese.

Cananga:   tree sp., Cananga odorata

Borrowing from some Philippine language into Palauan.

candle

From Spanish candela ‘candle’.

cane cord used for heavy binding

Probably a loanword from Malay, although the unreducted medial clusters in Batak languages are problematic under this interpretation.

canoe:   gunwale, side plank on canoe

Borrowing from Sangir.

canvas

Borrowing of Spanish lona ‘canvas’.

cap

Borrowing from Malay.

cape:   peninsula cape

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tanzuŋ ‘peninsula, cape’ (Halbinsel, Kap).

carabao:   water buffalo, carabao

Borrowing from Malay, ultimately from a Mon-Khmer source (Thurgood 1999:322). Kavalan has several loanwords from Philippine languages and from Spanish that date to the brief Spanish occupation of the Ilan basin from 1626-1642, during which time they came up from Manila in an attempt to expand their colonial holdings. The source of Fijian karavau remains unclear. Capell (1968:85) entertains two speculations: 1. “the name came from Vuda, where the people, seeing reddish cattle, called them after the cloth karavau”, 2. “probably Eng. caribou”. The second of these appears particularly improbable.

cards:   playing cards

Borrowing, probably from Makassarese. van der Veen (1940) considers the Tae' word a borrowing of Buginese ujaŋ, but if so the phonetic discrepancy between these forms and the agreement of the Tae' and Ngaju Dayak forms remains unexplained. Although the referent of this term is a European introduction, the word itself appears to be native, evidently reflecting *buyaŋ 'bark cloth?'.

careful, cautious

Borrowing, ultimately from Arabic.

caress, cuddle

Borrowing from Tagalog.

carpenter’s plane

Also Toba Batak otom ‘wood plane’, maŋ-otom ‘to plane wood’, Tae' gattaŋ ‘to plane wood’, Muna hatamu ‘(carpenter’s) plane’. Borrowing from Malay. In Philippine languages this presumably began with Tagalog, from whence it spread to several other coastal languages, including Ilokano, and from Ilokano it was borrowed into various of the mountain languages of northern Luzon. Dempwolff (1938) posited *keTem ‘wood plane’, and included Javanese keṭem in this meaning, but I am unable to locate such a term either in modern Javanese (Pigeaud 1938, Horne 1974), or in Old Javanese (Zoetmulder 1982).

case:   betel case

Borrowing, presumably from Malay.

cashew

Evidently a loan, since the cashew is native to northeast Brazil, and must have been introduced into the Philippines during Spanish colonial rule.

casket, coffin

Borrowing from Tagalog.

cassava manioc

Borrowing from Malay. Cassava presumably was introduced to Southeast Asia by the Portuguese, as it is indigenous to the Amazonian region. Why the Malay name suggests a derivation from Bengal remains unclear. The manioc is an Amazonian plant, and presumably was brought to Asia by the Portuguese. The present comparison suggests that it first reached India, then Malaya before Malay merchants introduced it into the southern Philippines.

cassowary

A much longer, but geographically more restricted version of this comparison was proposed by Clark (2011:288), who --- following earlier work by Milke (1965) posited PCEMP *kasawari ‘cassowary’, POc *kasuari ‘dwarf cassowary’. However, the history of this term is unclear. Austronesian speakers would not have encountered the cassowary until they reached New Guinea and the Bismarck archipelago, yet reflexes of this form are found far to the west of the Wallace Line, suggesting a later spread of the word through trade. Even the Oceanic forms that Clark has assembled as support for his reconstruction are wildly irregular, suggesting an equally complex history of borrowing.

castrated

Borrowing from Malay.

castrated₂

Borrowing of Spanish capón ‘eunuch, gelding’.

Casuarina:   tree sp., Casuarina equisetifolia

Dempwolff (1934-38) assigned these two forms to *eRu 'name of a tree'. However, Malay eru regularly reflects *aRuhu (q.v.), and Toba Batak oru clearly is a borrowing of the Malay form with the normal phonological adjustment made in the assimilation of non-native words with shwa.

cat, Felis domesticus

It is unclear when domestic cats first reached insular Southeast Asia, and it is possible that this word originally referred to a native animal. If so, however, the word has been transferred almost everywhere to the domestic cat, and it is clearly a loanword in at least Tagalog and Tetun.

catty (unit of weight for foodstuffs)

Borrowing from Malay.

caulking:   mortar, caulking

Also Balinese pijar ‘borax, solder’. Borrowing from Malay. Based on the comparison of Tagalog, Ngaju Dayak, Malay, Toba Batak and Javanese Dempwolff (1938) proposed Uraustronesisch *pizer ‘paste, solder’.

cause:   origin, cause, provided that

Borrowing, ultimately from Arabic.

caustic soda:   lye, caustic soda

Borrowing of Spanish lejia ‘lye’.

careful, cautious

Borrowing, ultimately from Arabic.

ceiling of a house

Almost certainly a borrowing of Mexican Spanish zaquisamé 'loft, upper floor', which itself may have originated in Arabic saqf fi [as]samā’ ‘roof in the sky’, with the meaning in Spanish of ‘attic’ or ‘a small room, not very clean, and disorderly’. I am much indebted to Lyle Campbell for running this down for me over a period of two days, during which time the source became increasingly clearer as more information was collected.

celebrate:   exult, celebrate (as a victory)

Dempwolff (1938) posited *surak ‘to exult, cheer, celebrate’, but the relationship of the Tagalog and Samoan forms to the others cited here is open to question, the Malagasy form appears to reflect *kurak, and the remaining forms could be products of borrowing from Malay.

ceremonially:   defiled, ritually polluted, ceremonially unclean

Dempwolff reconstructed *cemeD ‘impure’, but there is little evidence for such a proto-form outside of Malay, Javanese and languages that have borrowed from either or both of these. The cognation of the Toba Batak form with the others appears doubtful, and the proposed connection of the Oceanic forms to these is completely unconvincing, making this comparison partly attributable to borrowing and partly to chance. The evidence for *-D was based entirely on the second Javanese form, which contains an unexplained stem-internal /r/.

certain

The western Indonesian forms appear to be loanwords from Malay or Javanese, and the resemblance of the Tagalog word to these is best attributed to chance. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *te(n)tu ‘certain’ (sicherlich).

chair

Borrowing from Spanish.

chair:   sedan chair

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tanDu ‘sedan chair’ (Tragstuhl).

chalk

From Spanish tiza ‘chalk.

change

A relatively late innovation in western Indonesia, with some subsequent dispersal through borrowing from Malay.

change (small money)

Probably a Tagalog loan in Ayta Abellen. The Tagalog word is said to be a Chinese loan, although a source is yet to be identified.

character, conduct

The Philippine forms, as well as Toba Batak, Makassarese paraŋe probably are borrowed from Malay. The remaining items are assumed to reflect a lexical innovation in Proto-Malayic or one of its descendants.

charity:   works of piety, charity

Borrowing, ultimately from Arabic.

charm for invulnerability

charm:   talisman, protective charm

Borrowing, ultimately from Arabic, but through the medium of Malay. Ironically, Kayan gimet is described as part of a pagan practice, although it was acquired through contact with Malay, which is the source of Islam for all native peoples of Borneo.

chayote, Sechium edule

Also Ifugaw (Batad) dayūti ‘a chayote vine: Sechium edule; the young leaves are cooked as vegetable greens, and eaten as a side dish’. This edible plant belonging to the gourd family is native to Mexico, and is one of many New World plants or cultural products that the Spanish introduced to the Philippines during their 350-year colonization of the archipelago.

cheap:   cotton cloth of cheap quality

Borrowing from Malay.

cheap, easy

Based on the Tagalog, Ngaju Dayak, Malagasy, Toba Batak and Javanese forms given here, and Malay mudah, Dempwolff (1934-1938) posited ‘Uraustronesisch’ *mudaq ‘easy; cheap’. However, under this reconstruction the following forms are irregular: Tagalog múra (expected **múraɁ) Malay murah (expected mudah, which also occurs), and Karo Batak, Sundanese murah (expected **mudah). This is an extremely messy comparison that appears to have resulted mostly by borrowing one or the other variants in Malay, although the reasoning for the doubleting in Malay itself remains unclear.

checkered:   cloth with checkered pattern

Borrowing from Malay.

checkers

From American Spanish dama ‘game of draughts, game of checkers’.

chest:   medicine chest

Borrowing from Spanish (Cebuano) and Portuguese (Javanese).

chest:   box chest

Borrowing from Malay, but ultimately from Tamil. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed Uraustronesisch *peTi ‘box, chest’.

chewed:   plant chewed with betel that invigorates

Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *gambir ‘refreshing’, but it is now clear that this is a loan distribution due to borrowing from Malay. The Tagalog form, which he cited from Laktaw (1914) does not appear in modern dictionaries.

child:   youngest child

Borrowing from Malay.

child-in-law

Borrowing from Malay.

chili pepper

From Spanish chile ‘chili pepper’.

chinaware:   porcelain, chinaware

Borrowing of Spanish loza ‘china, porcelain; crockery’.

Chinese

Borrowing from Malay.

Chinese

This is almost certainly a loan distribution, but if so it is puzzling that Malay (the only western Indonesian language which has a form with first-syllable //i//) apparently does not use the term to mean 'Chinese', and Javanese, which uses the term to mean 'Chinese', has only a form with first-syllable shwa.

Chinese born in Indonesia

Borrowing from Malay.

Chinese boat

Chinese:   cloth acquired in trade from Chinese (?)

Presumably a loan from southern Chinese, although a plausible source word is yet to be identified. Thanks to Yen-ling Chen for tracing the history of this form, and drawing my attention to the suggestion that the name may derive from a reduplicated form of Malay kain ‘cloth’: kain-kain > kankan > kaŋkan > kaŋgan.

chisel

Also Ibaloy sinsil ‘chisel’. From Spanish cincel ‘chisel (for stone and metal)’, with assimilation to the pattern of a reduplicated monosyllable.

cicada

This is a problematic comparison, since the only regular source of Pazeh l is *N, Thao l is found only in Bunun loanwords, where it can reflect *l or *R, and the only regular sources of Kavalan r are *l, and less commonly, *R (Li and Tsuchida 2006). If we were to attempt a reconstruction the most likely shape would be *lalay, which shows a regular development in Kavalan raray, but irregularities in the other two languages, where we would also expect forms with r rather than l. There seems to be little alternative except to assume borrowing. However, this is also problematic, since 1. the cicada is ubiquitous in Taiwan, its whining sound being omnipresent during the summer months wherever there is vegetation, and 2. Kavalan is not presently in contact with either of the other languages, and probably never has been.

circumambulate, go around the edge

Borrowing from Javanese? Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed PAn *tepis ‘go around the edge’.

citrus fruit

Almost certainly a borrowing of Portuguese limão ‘citrus fruit’. Dempwolff (1938) compared these with Sa'a moli ‘a wild orange’, Fijian moli ‘general name for spp. of citrus fruits’, and similar forms Polynesian languages which he assumed to show metathesis, and posited Uraustronesisch *limaw ‘citrus’ in what would appear now to be a spectacularly misguided etymology.

clapper:   bird clapper (to frighten them from fields)

Dempwolff reconstructed *kenTuŋ ‘bird clapper’, but the highly restricted distribution of this form is best explained as a product of borrowing from Malay. I have, moreover, been unable to find the Javanese form he gives in either Pigeaud (1938) or Horne (1974). With root *-tuŋ ‘deep resounding sound’.

clarify, shed light on

Presumably a Greater Central Philippine loanword in Casiguran Dumagat.

clear:   bright, clear

The western Indonesian forms appear to be borrowed from Malay the Tagalog form probably has no connection with these. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *teraŋ ‘bright’ (hellsein).

clever, intelligent

Borrowing from Malay. Based on data from Ngaju Dayak, Malay, Toba Batak and Javanese, Dempwolff (1938) proposed Uraustronesisch *pinte(rR) ‘clever’.

close by, next to

Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed this as *sanDiŋ ‘at hand; in addition to’, but given its limited distribution it is most plausibly treated as a borrowing from Malay.

cloth used for shawl

Borrowing from Malay.

cloth with checkered pattern

Borrowing from Malay.

cloth:   cotton cloth

Borrowing from Malay.

cloth:   cotton cloth of cheap quality

Borrowing from Malay.

cloth acquired in trade from Chinese (?)

Presumably a loan from southern Chinese, although a plausible source word is yet to be identified. Thanks to Yen-ling Chen for tracing the history of this form, and drawing my attention to the suggestion that the name may derive from a reduplicated form of Malay kain ‘cloth’: kain-kain > kankan > kaŋkan > kaŋgan.

cloth:   trade cloth (bright red)

Presumably borrowing from Tagalog.

cloth:   piece (of cloth...)

From Spanish pedazo ‘piece, fragment, bit’.

cloth covering

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff also included Fijian labi ‘a small bundle of fish tied up in leaves, ready for cooking’, a word that shows no obvious relationship to those cited here. Based on these three languages he posited Uraustronesisch *lampin ‘covering, envelope’ (Hülle).

clothing

This word shows phonological irregularities that make a reconstruction impossible. It is clearly a loan distribution, although the pattern of diffusion is yet to be determined.

clothing

This is a clear Malay loanword in both of its common senses: ‘to use’ and ‘to wear/clothiing, adornment’. Dempwolff compared the Ngaju Dayak, Malay, Toba Batak and Javanese words given here with Tagalog pákay ‘mission; purpose; intention; aim’, and posited Urindonesisch *pakay ‘to use; to dress up, put on clothing’. However, the Tagalog word does not appear to be related to the others, and the remaining forms do not justify a reconstruction. (see ‘use, wear, dress up in finery’)

clotted, coagulated

Bintulu, Ngaju Dayak and Karo Batak are assumed to be loans from Malay. The similarity of these WMP forms to those in CMP and OC languages is attributed to chance.

clove, mace

Borrowing. The distribution of this item is consistent with the hypothesis, first suggested to me by James T. Collins, that the pre-European spice trade of Indonesia was mediated by Brunei Malays in a commercial arc that linked Brunei (and peninsular Malay ports) with the southern Philippines and northern Moluccas. The maintenance of such contacts on a regular basis would have required sailing along the western and northern coasts of Sabah, through the Sulu Archipelago to southern Mindanao, and from there to Sangir-Talaud and northern Sulawesi before reaching the northern Moluccas. Given this interpretation the otherwise puzzling occurrence of apparent Philippine loanwords in Buli of southern Halmahera can be placed within a coherent historical context. There can be little doubt that the same network served the propagation of Islam.

Although some form of spice trade between eastern and western Indonesia (and points beyond) probably predated the arrival of Islam in island Southeast Asia by many centuries, there is little evidence for large-scale trade contacts with eastern Indonesia during the Indianization of western Indonesia (e.g. the Sriwijaya period). On present evidence, then, it appears most likely that a regular and systematic linkage of Moluccan clove and nutmeg suppliers with Bruneian or other Malay distributors developed in concert with the diffusion of Islam into Borneo, the southern Philippines and the northern Moluccas during the 14th and 15th centuries. If so, the Brunei of Pigafetta, with its lavish displays of wealth and rank, must have been a relatively nouveau-riche Islamic elaboration upon an older Indianized state in which the supporting trade base had only recently undergone a fundamental shift from a western Indonesian to an eastern Indonesian emphasis.

coagulated:   clotted, coagulated

Bintulu, Ngaju Dayak and Karo Batak are assumed to be loans from Malay. The similarity of these WMP forms to those in CMP and OC languages is attributed to chance.

cock, rooster; male bird or chicken

Probably a Bunun loan in Thao, although the z : l correspondence is unexpected (Blust 1996).

cockroach

Two considerations make it likely that this is a loan distribution. First, PAn *Sipes can be reconstructed in the same meaning. Second, the Bunun form comes from the southern dialect, which is directly in contact with Rukai territory.

cockspur:   artificial cockspur

Borrowing from Malay. The direction of borrowing for this term strongly suggests that cockfighting was introduced into the Austronesian world in western Indonesia, and from there spread northward into the Philippines and eastward to Sulawesi. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tazi ‘artificial cockspur’ (Kunstsporn).

coconut residue

Borrowing into Gilbertese from a Polynesian source.

coconut cream

Also Old Javanese santən ‘essence, quintessence; pollen, flower’; coconut milk (pressed from coconut meat); coconut, coconut palm (especially the ivory coconut); female breasts’, santən ’like (the color of) santən; milky white, pale’, Javanese santen ‘coconut milk pressed from shredded coconut meat’, ñanten ‘to extract coconut milk by pressing’, santen-an ‘having coconut milk mixed into it’, Balinese santen ‘coconut cream, the juice squeezed out of the flesh of coconuts’. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *sant(ae)n ‘coconut oil’, but this appears to have been a Javanese innovation *santən that was borrowed into Malay and then spread over other parts of western Indonesia and northward into the Philippines.

coconut beetle, coconut blight

Apparently a loanword from Tagalog into Ilokano, although the word is phonologically irregular in both Tagalog (where *-d- > r), and Cebuano (where *-d- > l).

coffin

Borrowing from Makassarese.

coffin:   casket, coffin

Borrowing from Tagalog.

coffin

Borrowing from Malay, ultimately from Sanskrit.

collect:   dunning to collect a debt

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tagiq ‘dun someone for collection of a debt’.

collide, hit, strike

The Philippine forms are unrelated to those in western Indonesia. Of the latter only Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong) and Malay, or Malay and the Batak languages permit a comparison, and this cannot safely be attributed to PWMP.

come on!, lets go!

Most of the forms cited here, including those in Tagalog, Ngaju Dayak, Gorontalo, Bimanese, and Manggarai, appear to be loans from Malay.

commitment:   obligation, duty, commitment

Dempwolff (1938) proposed *siliq ‘obligation, duty’, but the limited distribution of this form among languages that have long been in contact is better explained as a product of borrowing.

communication, conversation

This is best treated as either a loanword or a low-level innovation. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *taruŋ ‘communication, conversation’.

complete

The Maranao form may be a loan from Javanese.

complete

Borrowing of Malay gənap ‘completing; rounding off; a pair; even (of numbers)’.

complexion

Borrowing of Spanish cutis ‘skin, complexion’.

compose

Borrowing from Malay.

condiment:   spicy condiment side dish with rice

Apparently an innovation in Old Javanese that was borrowed by Malay and subsequently disseminated among languages in western Indonesia that were in frequent contact with Malay traders.

conduct:   character, conduct

The Philippine forms, as well as Toba Batak, Makassarese paraŋe probably are borrowed from Malay. The remaining items are assumed to reflect a lexical innovation in Proto-Malayic or one of its descendants.

confess:   admit fault, confess

Probably a Tagalog loan distribution.

confidence (in lending money):   trust, confidence (in lending money)

From Spanish confiar ‘trust’.

confiscate

Borrowing from Tagalog.

confuse:   bewilder, confuse

From Spanish atarantar ‘confuse, bewilder’.

confused

Most of the items both in western and eastern Indonesia are assumed to be loans from Malay. The similarity of Pohnpeian piŋ to these forms is attributed to chance.

conscience, mind, insight

Borrowing, ultimately from Sanskrit. Iban budi, budiʔ shows secondary final glottal stop, and two polarized clusters of meaning, evidently connected with the existence of a former system of speech disguise based on antonymy (Blust 1981).

consider, regard

Also Iban tilik ‘gaze at, peer, take a sight, e.g. in surveying’. Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tilik ‘consider, regard’ (betrachten).

consider closely:   scrutinize consider closely

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tinzaw ‘scrutinize, consider closely’ (genau betrachten). Cf. PMP *tindaw ‘see in the distance’.

content, satisfied

Also Ngaju Dayak sanai ‘quiet, still, calm, secure, at ease’, Iban sənaŋ ‘comfortable, at ease, well-to-do’, the latter a clear loanword from Malay. Dempwolff (9138) posited *sen(ae)ŋ ‘content, satisfied’, with a vowel that is not so much ambiguous as contradictory, since the Ngaju Dayak and Toba Batak forms point to *a, Malay is ambiguous, and Javanese, along with other languages, points to *e. A more plausible interpretation is that Ngaju Dayak sanaŋ is a loanword from Banjarese, and Toba Batak sonaŋ a loan from peninsula or Sumatran Malay. Malay itself presumably borrowed this word from Javanese, and then spread it to other languages after the merger of last-syllable *a and *e.

continue

Borrowing of Spanish Sigue ‘Go on, continue!’.

communication, conversation

This is best treated as either a loanword or a low-level innovation. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *taruŋ ‘communication, conversation’.

converse:   speak, converse

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff's (1934-38) inclusion of Fijian vosa 'speak, talk' under a reconstruction *ucap 'speak, converse with' appears unjustified.

convolvulus

Makasarese kaŋkoŋ may be a loanword from Malay, but this appears unlikely in the case of Kapampangan, where the initial vowel cannot be accounted for in this way. Merrill (1954:228) attributes this to borrowing from an unidentified Chinese source. Although a precise donor language is difficult to identify, a Chinese source appears likely from information that I have received courtesy of Yen-ling Chen, who notes that “Convolvulus (Ipomoea aquatica)... in written Chinese can be 空心菜, 蕹菜 or 通菜 (Mandarin: khong ɕin tshai (空心菜), ioŋ tshai (蕹菜), thoŋ tshai (通菜).” To this she adds that “‘a hole’ in (Taiwanese) Southern Min is khang (孔), and the same character in contemporary Mandarin is pronounced as khong. And 空心菜 means literally ‘hollow-heart-vegetable.’”

cooked:   packet of cooked rice

Probably borrowing from Malay. Chamorro atupat, Kamarian atuat suggest an etymon *qatubat, but the Chamorro variant in k- and the unexplained loss of *b (expected //h//) in Kamarian leave borrowing as the best alternative.

copper-gold alloy

Borrowing from Sanskrit. For a detailed account of the complex history of this word, which generally refers to copper in island Southeast Asia, but to a copper-gold alloy in the archaeological cultures of the Andes cf. Blust (1992a).

copy:   imitate, copy

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tiru ‘to imitate, copy’ (nachnahmen).

cord:   cane cord used for heavy binding

Probably a loanword from Malay, although the unreducted medial clusters in Batak languages are problematic under this interpretation.

coriander seed

Borrowing from Tami through the medium of Malay.

cork, stopper

Borrowing, ultimately from Spanish tapón ‘stopper, cork’.

correct:   right correct

The western Indonesian forms are likely loans from Malay, and the Tagalog form a chance resemblance. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *teŋen ‘be right’ (rechtsein).

corrupt

Presumably a loan, although a source is still unknown.

cot, bed

Borrowing of Spanish catre ‘small bed’.

cotton cloth

Borrowing from Malay.

cotton cloth of cheap quality

Borrowing from Malay.

cotton:   spin cotton thread

A relatively late innovation in western Indonesia, with probable borrowing from Malay into some of the other languages cited here.

cotton

Presumably a borrowing of Sanskrit karpāsa into Malay, from whence it spread to other languages of western Indonesia and the Philippines. What is surprising about this distribution is that there are widespread forms that point to an apparent *kapas, and others that point to an apparent *kapes, and in some cases this refers to the native silk-cotton tree, Ceiba pentandra. These discrepancies suggest that the full borrowing history of this form remains to be worked out.

cough

The Tiruray form is assumed to be a MANO loan; the similar of the Rotinese and Motu forms to these is attributed to chance.

covering

Probably a Malay loan distribution.

cow

Probably a Malay loan distribution.

craft:   intelligence, craft, scheme

Borrowing, ultimately from Arabic.

craftsman

Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tukaŋ ‘craftsman’.

cream:   coconut cream

Also Old Javanese santən ‘essence, quintessence; pollen, flower’; coconut milk (pressed from coconut meat); coconut, coconut palm (especially the ivory coconut); female breasts’, santən ’like (the color of) santən; milky white, pale’, Javanese santen ‘coconut milk pressed from shredded coconut meat’, ñanten ‘to extract coconut milk by pressing’, santen-an ‘having coconut milk mixed into it’, Balinese santen ‘coconut cream, the juice squeezed out of the flesh of coconuts’. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *sant(ae)n ‘coconut oil’, but this appears to have been a Javanese innovation *santən that was borrowed into Malay and then spread over other parts of western Indonesia and northward into the Philippines.

crippled:   lame, crippled

I am unable to find Tagalog liŋig in any modern dictionary of the language. The resemblance of the Malay and Javanese forms, as with hundreds of others, is best regarded as a product of borrowing. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed Uraustronesisch *leŋeR ‘lame, crippled’.

crippled, lame

Probably a Bisayan loan in Agutaynen.

cross-legged:   sit cross-legged

Said to be from Sanskrit in western Indonesia, and then borrowed through Malay into Philippine languages such as Tagalog.

cross-stick for outrigger

Buli is assumed to be a loan from some CMP source.

cucumber

From Spanish pepino ‘cucumber’.

cuddle:   caress, cuddle

Borrowing from Tagalog.

cup

Borrowing, apparently from Minnan Chinese.

cup for dinking

From Spanish taza ‘cup; cupful’.