c   

calm:   still, calm

This probably is best treated as a collected of unrelated forms until such time as better comparative data is available. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed Uraustronessisch *liŋaw ‘still, calm’ (Stillsein).

calm (of the wind)

Dempwolff (1938) used this comparison to posit ‘Uraustronesisch’ *taduq (dbl. *te(n)duq) ‘calm, of the wind’ (Windstille). However, I am unable to find the Tagalog form in any modern dictionary of the language, and even if it were available, it is phonologically irregular, lacking a final glottal stop. In addition, Ngaju Dayak tadoh is ambiguous for a form with penultimate *a or *e, and the Sa'a form is best treated as a chance resemblance.

carbuncle:   boil, carbuncle

carry:   bring, carry

carry:   bring, carry

causative marker

cease:   stop, cease

center:   split down the center

ceremony

certain:   ten, in counting certain objects

change:   other, to change

Chance. Dempwolff (1934-38) combined these forms with Ngaju Dayak iwa-n 'sister-in-law (woman speaking)'.

chase:   pursue, chase

child:   offspring child

chip off:   break off, chip off

chirrup:   shrill whistle or chirrup

chop, split, adze something

The Thao form could reflect either *saqsaq or *taqtaq, the Paiwan form only *saqsaq. Probably a chance resemblance.

clap:   slap, clap

Probably best treated as a convergent development with the common monosyllabic root *-pak₁ ‘slap, clap’.

clasp in the arms

clause-final particle

clear forest for planting

Based on this comparison Dempwolff (1938) proposed *te(m)bak ‘to clear forest’.

close together

close:   dense, close together

close the eyes

Dempwolff (1938) proposed *pezam ‘close the eyes’ (dbl. (*penDem), but the Toba Batak form is better treated as a Malay loan, and the Fijian and Polynesian forms, which show multiple phonological irregularities, as chance resemblances to the forms in insular Southeast Asia.

cock's comb

Malay baloŋ may be cognate with the first two syllables of the northern Philippine forms. Until more information is available, however, this comparison is perhaps best treated as a product of chance.

coconut

cold, cool

cold

Given the availability of much stronger comparisons for this meaning, and the absence of known comparable forms in any non-Polynesian language apart from Wandamen, this comparison is best treated as a product of chance.

collide, hit, strike

The Philippine forms are unrelated to those in western Indonesia. Of the latter only Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong) and Malay, or Malay and the Batak languages permit a comparison, and this cannot safely be attributed to PWMP.

cock's comb

Malay baloŋ may be cognate with the first two syllables of the northern Philippine forms. Until more information is available, however, this comparison is perhaps best treated as a product of chance.

come across by chance:   meet, come across by chance

These two have probably met by chance, as no other supporting evidence for this comparison is known.

companion

compassion:   pity, compassion

The similarity of Makassarese ballasaʔ to the other forms cited here probably is due to chance. The remainder of this comparison is best regarded as a late innovation in western Indonesia, with likely borrowing either from Malay or from Javanese.

conceal:   shelter, conceal

conceive

Chance. Despite the non-conforming Ngaju Dayak form and the wide latitude in semantics Dempwolff 1934-38 proposed this comparison presumably on the assumption that the affixed form in Javanese was a clearer indication of the meaning of the base form than the base form itself.

confused

Most of the items both in western and eastern Indonesia are assumed to be loans from Malay. The similarity of Pohnpeian piŋ to these forms is attributed to chance.

confused

confusion

connecting piece

Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *kaliŋ with the vague gloss ‘Zwischenstück’ (‘connecting piece’), using it to combine a collection of semantically disparate forms solely on the grounds that they could all be assigned to a reconstruction of the same shape.

connecting piece

Dempwolff (1938) proposed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tuŋkəq ‘piece, connecting piece’.

consciousness:   lose consciousness

constant, steady

Dempwolff (1938) proposed *kekel ‘constant, steady’, but the evidence he presented provides little convincing support for his reconstruction.

container:   woven container

container:   edge, rim, flat container

This is an example of a type of comparison that is unfortunately rather common in Dempwolff (1938), namely one in which the semantics of forms that would allow a higher-level reconstruction are extremely forced and artificial (the Ngaju Dayak and Javanese forms, which are semantically compatible, cannot safely support a reconstruction, given the longstanding Javanese influence on Banjarese and Ngaju Dayak). Unlike most of the chance resemblances for which Dempwolff proposed PAn reconstructions this one also shows an unacknowledged phonological irregularity, since he cites Fijian i-tabi ‘flat basket’, while Capell (1968) instead gives tabe ‘to hold or carry with the hands under’, i-tabe ‘a small oval basket without handles’.

contradict someone

Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *taki ‘contradict someone’ (widerede), based on Tagalog taki-taki ‘digression’ and the Malay word given here, but I am unable to find his Tagalog form in Panganiban (1966) or English (1986), and the available evidence does not strongly support a reconstruction with the shape and meaning he proposed.

cook, boil

cold, cool

coral

cough

The Tiruray form is assumed to be a Manobo loan; the similar of the Rotinese and Motu forms to these is attributed to chance.

cough

Chance. Toba Batak oŋkol probably contains a root *-kel, seen in such Philippine forms as Manobo (Sarangani) kelkel and Kalamian Tagbanwa kulkul 'cough'.

cough

cough

Dempwolff (1938) proposed *kukak ‘cough’, but the support given for this is too weak to merit a reconstruction without further evidence (Malagasy should reflect *k- as h, and Toba Batak should reflect *u as u).

count

counting:   ten, in counting certain objects

courtyard:   yard, courtyard

Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *taman ‘yard, courtyard’ (Hof), but there is little likelihood that any of these forms are related.

cover, shut

The Bornean forms point to *ateb; the similarity of Tagalog atáb/ and Muna ghonto to these is attributed to chance.

covered, veiled

Dempwolff (1938) proposed PAn *tambeŋ ‘covered, veiled’ for what is best treated as a collection of unrelated forms.

covering membrane of plants

coverlet:   blanket, coverlet

crab claw, lance

This is one of the most remarkably speculative of all Dempwolff etymologies. The forms in western Indonesia refer exclusively to spears or lances, and those in Polynesian languages to land crabs, but here he has tried to force a connection by assuming that the primary reference in the latter case is to the claw of the crab, imagined as somehow believed to be lance-like (rather than pincer-like, which is far more likely). Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch’ *tumbak ‘crab claw, lance’ (Krebsschere, Lanze).

crag

cranium:   skull, cranium

Although initially tempting, this comparison is problematic in two respects: 1. the final correspondence appears to be without parallel, 2. the referent in Philippine languages evidently is the bony structure of the body in general rather than the skull in particular. With regard to the first of these points Zorc (1982:115) has argued for the reconstruction of PAn *-q, *-ʔ, and *-h. Amis foŋoh points to an etymon with *-h, but this is cohtradicted by all Philippine witnesses, which can indicate only *-q or *-ʔ.

crashing sound

cropland

Based on these four forms and Javanese laḍaŋ ‘clearing’, Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed Uraustronesisch *laḍaŋ ‘cropland’. However the Javanese form cannot be located (the closest I have found is Pigeaud’s laḍaŋ ‘good opportunity; room to do something’). Apart from the Iban and Malay forms, which are clearly cognate, but show Iban’s recurrent pattern of antonymy (Blust 1981), the remaining forms are best treated as a collection of random similarities.

crossbeam supporting floor

crotch

crowd, throng

cruel:   mean, cruel

crush

crush

cultivated land

Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed ‘Uraustronesisch *teba ‘cultivated land’ (Fruchtland), but without better evidence this reconstruction appears fanciful.

curl:   bend, curl

Probably chance, although both forms appear to contain the root *-kel 'bend, curl'.

curl

Dempwolff (1938) posited *keDut ‘curl’, but there is little semantic cohesion to this set of formally compatible words.

curse

curvature

cut

cut

cut up, cut off

Chance (cp. POc *paRi 'cut or lop off branches').

cut up, cut off

Chance (cp. POc *paRi 'cut or lop off branches').

cut off

Based on the forms given here Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *zu(ŋ)kit ‘cut off’, a form that now appears to be unsupportable.